The negative impact of soil-transmitted helminths (STHs) in Nigeria is enormous, and it poses serious public health issues and concerns. This study was undertaken to investigate the impact of health education intervention on reinfection of STHs in pupils of rural schools of Kogi East, North Central Nigeria. A total of 10 schools with the highest prevalence of STHs at baseline were selected from the 45 schools assessed during the baseline survey. These 10 schools were randomly paired into two groups of 5 schools per group. Five schools were dewormed and given health education (DHE) intervention while the other 5 schools were dewormed only (DO) without health education. Reassessment of schools for reinfection was carried out for a period of 12 months. Data obtained were analyzed using descriptive statistics. Student’s <span class="nowrap"><svg xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" style="vertical-align:-0.2063999pt" id="M1" height="8.02022pt" version="1.1" viewBox="-0.0498162 -7.81382 4.54925 8.02022" width="4.54925pt"><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,0,0)"><path id="g113-117" d="M324 430H196L233 583L223 592L145 529L120 430H54L29 396L31 388H111L56 126C33 15 54 -12 77 -12C137 -12 214 57 250 95L233 119C208 92 155 59 138 59C126 59 120 70 131 125L186 390L298 394L324 430Z"/></g></svg>-</span>test was used to make comparison between interventions in the incidence of infections. Analysis was carried out at <span class="inline_break"><svg xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="18.973pt" style="vertical-align:-3.42938pt" id="M2" height="11.7782pt" version="1.1" viewBox="-0.0498162 -8.34882 18.973 11.7782"><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,0,0)"><path id="g113-113" d="M570 304C570 398 525 448 414 448C385 448 343 445 312 434L329 511L321 518C297 504 262 482 244 460L233 411C195 397 159 381 128 358L135 332C160 347 189 360 224 373L111 -147C97 -210 84 -218 17 -231L13 -257L254 -247L259 -218L233 -216C183 -212 177 -202 189 -142L218 -1C238 -10 266 -12 283 -12C351 3 429 48 483 105C543 168 570 242 570 304ZM482 289C482 161 380 33 304 33C278 33 248 51 233 69L303 396C326 400 352 403 369 403C428 403 482 380 482 289Z"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,11.342,0)"><path id="g117-91" d="M512 -3V55L134 254V256L512 456V514L75 281V230L512 -3Z"/></g></svg><span class="irelop"></span><span class="nowrap"><svg xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="21.921pt" style="vertical-align:-3.42938pt" height="11.7782pt" version="1.1" viewBox="22.555183800000002 -8.34882 21.921 11.7782"><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,22.605,0)"><path id="g113-49" d="M241 635C89 635 35 457 35 312C35 153 89 -12 240 -12C390 -12 443 166 443 312C443 466 390 635 241 635ZM238 602C329 602 354 454 354 312C354 172 330 22 240 22C152 22 124 173 124 313S148 602 238 602Z"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,28.845,0)"><path id="g113-47" d="M113 -12C146 -12 170 11 170 46C170 78 146 103 114 103S58 78 58 46C58 11 82 -12 113 -12Z"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,31.809,0)"><use xlink:href="#g113-49"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,38.049,0)"><path id="g113-54" d="M153 550H386L412 615L406 623H120L82 318C104 327 142 338 184 338C294 338 347 275 347 187C347 112 305 39 221 39C160 39 119 71 97 89C88 97 80 96 71 90C59 80 50 67 49 57C48 45 52 36 66 23C80 9 123 -12 169 -12C221 -11 288 15 342 59C403 109 431 165 431 225C431 308 366 395 238 395C212 395 165 379 127 364L153 550Z"/></g></svg>.</span></span> Reinfection with STHs was observed from the 28<sup>th</sup> week (7<sup>th</sup> month) of both interventions with incidence of 0.29 (2 pupils) and 1.00 (7 pupils) in DO and DHE schools, respectively. In the 36<sup>th</sup> week (9<sup>th</sup> month), incidence observed in schools given DHE was 0.56 (5 pupils) while incidence of 0.89 (8 pupils) was observed in DO schools, and there was no significant difference (<span class="inline_break"><svg xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="15.696pt" style="vertical-align:-0.3499298pt" id="M3" height="8.69875pt" version="1.1" viewBox="-0.0498162 -8.34882 15.696 8.69875"><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,0,0)"><use xlink:href="#g113-117"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,8.065,0)"><path id="g117-34" d="M535 323V373H52V323H535ZM535 138V188H52V138H535Z"/></g></svg><span class="irelop"></span><span class="nowrap"><svg xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="35.833pt" style="vertical-align:-0.3499298pt" height="8.69875pt" version="1.1" viewBox="19.2781838 -8.34882 35.833 8.69875"><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,19.328,0)"><path id="g117-33" d="M535 230V280H52V230H535Z"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,26.959,0)"><path id="g113-50" d="M384 0V27C293 34 287 42 287 114V635C232 613 172 594 109 583V559L157 557C201 555 205 550 205 499V114C205 42 199 34 109 27V0H384Z"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,33.199,0)"><use xlink:href="#g113-47"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,36.163,0)"><use xlink:href="#g113-49"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,42.403,0)"><use xlink:href="#g113-49"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,48.643,0)"><use xlink:href="#g113-49"/></g></svg>,</span></span> <span class="inline_break"><svg xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="18.973pt" style="vertical-align:-3.42938pt" id="M4" height="11.7782pt" version="1.1" viewBox="-0.0498162 -8.34882 18.973 11.7782"><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,0,0)"><use xlink:href="#g113-113"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,11.342,0)"><use xlink:href="#g117-34"/></g></svg><span class="irelop"></span><span class="nowrap"><svg xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="28.184pt" style="vertical-align:-3.42938pt" height="11.7782pt" version="1.1" viewBox="22.555183800000002 -8.34882 28.184 11.7782"><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,22.605,0)"><use xlink:href="#g113-49"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,28.845,0)"><use xlink:href="#g113-47"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,31.809,0)"><path id="g113-52" d="M285 378C315 398 338 416 353 432C373 451 384 474 384 503C384 579 325 635 236 635H235C182 635 136 610 108 579L65 516L85 496C110 533 150 575 205 575C258 575 300 543 300 481C300 407 232 369 141 339L147 310C163 315 188 321 211 321C268 321 338 284 338 192C338 94 288 40 217 40C160 40 119 68 93 91C85 98 77 97 69 91C60 84 47 71 46 58C44 46 48 35 62 22C75 10 116 -12 162 -12C234 -12 424 62 424 224C424 297 373 359 285 376V378Z"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,38.049,0)"><path id="g113-53" d="M456 178V225H360V632H320C217 496 115 347 20 206V178H280V106C280 40 276 34 189 27V0H445V27C364 34 360 39 360 106V178H456ZM280 225H82C149 335 214 431 278 520H280V225Z"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,44.289,0)"><path id="g113-56" d="M447 623H65C61 580 56 530 47 475H76C100 541 106 550 172 550H388C308 376 196 170 91 -1L98 -12L172 -2C268 204 360 408 455 611L447 623Z"/></g></svg>)</span></span> between the interventions. At 48<sup>th</sup> week (12<sup>th</sup> month), there was no significant difference (<span class="inline_break"><svg xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="15.696pt" style="vertical-align:-0.3499298pt" id="M5" height="8.69875pt" version="1.1" viewBox="-0.0498162 -8.34882 15.696 8.69875"><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,0,0)"><use xlink:href="#g113-117"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,8.065,0)"><use xlink:href="#g117-34"/></g></svg><span class="irelop"></span><span class="nowrap"><svg xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="35.833pt" style="vertical-align:-0.3499298pt" height="8.69875pt" version="1.1" viewBox="19.2781838 -8.34882 35.833 8.69875"><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,19.328,0)"><use xlink:href="#g117-33"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,26.959,0)"><use xlink:href="#g113-49"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,33.199,0)"><use xlink:href="#g113-47"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,36.163,0)"><use xlink:href="#g113-54"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,42.403,0)"><use xlink:href="#g113-53"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,48.644,0)"><use xlink:href="#g113-56"/></g></svg>,</span></span> <span class="inline_break"><svg xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="18.973pt" style="vertical-align:-3.42938pt" id="M6" height="11.7782pt" version="1.1" viewBox="-0.0498162 -8.34882 18.973 11.7782"><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,0,0)"><use xlink:href="#g113-113"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,11.342,0)"><use xlink:href="#g117-34"/></g></svg><span class="irelop"></span><span class="nowrap"><svg xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="28.184pt" style="vertical-align:-3.42938pt" height="11.7782pt" version="1.1" viewBox="22.555183800000002 -8.34882 28.184 11.7782"><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,22.605,0)"><use xlink:href="#g113-49"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,28.845,0)"><use xlink:href="#g113-47"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,31.809,0)"><use xlink:href="#g113-54"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,38.049,0)"><path id="g113-58" d="M244 635C114 635 38 519 38 422C38 317 111 240 217 240C236 240 255 244 277 256L345 292C311 140 203 39 59 15L64 -15C89 -15 150 -5 204 17C339 72 440 202 440 386C440 521 368 635 244 635ZM228 602C326 602 352 479 352 390C352 370 351 347 348 324C327 308 293 296 258 296C174 296 124 369 124 458C124 517 152 602 228 602Z"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,44.29,0)"><use xlink:href="#g113-58"/></g></svg>)</span></span> in incidence between the DHE and DO schools with incidence of 1.00 (12 pupils) and 0.83 (10 pupils), respectively. Hookworms had an incidence of 0.78 (7 pupils) at DHE schools and 0.56 (5 pupils) at DO schools in the 36<sup>th</sup> week while an incidence of 0.92 (11 pupils) and 0.83 (10 pupils) at DHE and DO schools, respectively, in the 48<sup>th</sup> week. <i>Ascaris lumbricoides</i> was only observed in DHE schools in a pupil with an incidence of 0.11 (1 pupil) and 0.08 (1 pupil) at 36<sup>th</sup> and 48<sup>th</sup> weeks. There was no significant difference in the prevalence of the parasites between DO and DHE intervention groups (<span class="inline_break"><svg xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="18.973pt" style="vertical-align:-3.42938pt" id="M7" height="11.7782pt" version="1.1" viewBox="-0.0498162 -8.34882 18.973 11.7782"><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,0,0)"><use xlink:href="#g113-113"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,11.342,0)"><path id="g117-92" d="M512 230V281L75 514V456L453 256V254L75 55V-3L512 230Z"/></g></svg><span class="irelop"></span><span class="nowrap"><svg xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="21.921pt" style="vertical-align:-3.42938pt" height="11.7782pt" version="1.1" viewBox="22.555183800000002 -8.34882 21.921 11.7782"><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,22.605,0)"><use xlink:href="#g113-49"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,28.845,0)"><use xlink:href="#g113-47"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,31.809,0)"><use xlink:href="#g113-49"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,38.049,0)"><use xlink:href="#g113-54"/></g></svg>).</span></span> School-based health education intervention had no significant impact on STH incidence in pupils of rural schools in Kogi East. Community-based deworming should be encouraged alongside improvement in the water, sanitation, and hygiene infrastructures and practices at both school and home.

Clement Ameh Yaro

Ezekiel Kogi

Sodangi Abdulkarim Luka

Luay Alkazmi

Junaidu Kabir

Kenneth Nnamdi Opara

Gaber El-Saber Batiha

Kamba Bayo

Friday Maduka Chikezie

Albert Bamigbade Alabi

Salamat Ibrahim Yunusa

Evaluation of School-Based Health Education Intervention on the Incidence of Soil-Transmitted Helminths in Pupils of Rural Communities of Eastern Kogi State, North Central Nigeria

Due to their limited environment, farm animals are at greater risk of parasitic infection than free-living animals, which also have greater natural resistance to parasitic diseases. The aim of the present study was to determine the influence of season and meteorological conditions (temperature and humidity) on the species composition and dynamics of parasitic infections in farmed mouflons. The study was conducted in a herd of mouflon (<span class="inline_break"><svg xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="17.789pt" style="vertical-align:-0.2063904pt" id="M1" height="8.55521pt" version="1.1" viewBox="-0.0498162 -8.34882 17.789 8.55521"><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,0,0)"><path id="g113-111" d="M495 86L479 114C446 82 419 66 409 66C401 66 401 72 406 97C420 166 436 231 453 297C489 435 454 448 428 448C406 448 384 439 354 422C305 394 222 327 161 247H159L183 345C200 415 194 448 173 448C143 448 82 410 23 351L38 325C64 349 95 371 105 371C111 371 116 365 109 336L25 -4L31 -12C50 -4 77 3 107 9C119 69 132 122 145 168C197 254 321 381 370 381C387 381 393 374 378 305L329 95C309 17 320 -12 345 -12C372 -12 430 19 495 86Z"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,10.158,0)"><path id="g117-34" d="M535 323V373H52V323H535ZM535 138V188H52V138H535Z"/></g></svg><span class="irelop"/><span class="nowrap"><svg xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="12.679pt" style="vertical-align:-0.2063904pt" height="8.55521pt" version="1.1" viewBox="21.3711838 -8.34882 12.679 8.55521"><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,21.421,0)"><path id="g113-53" d="M456 178V225H360V632H320C217 496 115 347 20 206V178H280V106C280 40 276 34 189 27V0H445V27C364 34 360 39 360 106V178H456ZM280 225H82C149 335 214 431 278 520H280V225Z"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,27.661,0)"><path id="g113-49" d="M241 635C89 635 35 457 35 312C35 153 89 -12 240 -12C390 -12 443 166 443 312C443 466 390 635 241 635ZM238 602C329 602 354 454 354 312C354 172 330 22 240 22C152 22 124 173 124 313S148 602 238 602Z"/></g></svg>)</span></span> in an extensive system: the animals remained on pasture all year round. The herd was dewormed twice per year with albendazole. Fecal samples were collected at monthly intervals over three years and tested. The prevalence of infection was defined based on coproscopic methods. For most of the studied protozoans (except for <i>E. parva</i>), a greater prevalence was recorded in spring and summer (i.w. from May to September). Regarding nematodes, <i>Capillaria</i> spp., <i>Nematodirus</i> sp., and the Trichostrongylidae demonstrated a much greater prevalence in winter (i.e., in January and December). Temperature and precipitation were found to be positively correlated with intensity of infection by protozoans. However, maximum air temperature was negatively correlated with infection intensity by some nematodes. The deworming practice used in the herd (selection of substance, date, and method of dosing) did not effectively protect the mouflons against parasitoses. Changes in the microclimate resulted in high extent and intensity of mouflon infection with gastrointestinal parasites. Understanding the dynamics of parasitic infections in mouflons during the year allows the development of an appropriate preventive programme.

B. Pilarczyk

A. Tomza-Marciniak

R. Pilarczyk

N. Sadowska

J. Uda&#x0142;a

J. Kuba

The Effect of Season and Meteorological Conditions on Parasite Infection in Farm-Maintained Mouflons (<i>Ovis aries Musimon</i>)

<i>Background</i>. In Africa, it has been estimated that 50 million cattle and 70 million sheep and goats are at risk of animal African trypanosomiasis, and three million cattle die annually. <i>Methods</i>. This study was conducted in all the regions of The Gambia except Kombo Saint Mary Island (Banjul). Structured questionnaires were administered to 440 randomly selected livestock owners and 23 livestock assistants, and 7 focus group discussions were held for both livestock owners and livestock assistants. The data were analyzed mainly using descriptive statistics and content analysis methods. <i>Results.</i> A total of 94.5&#x0025; and 75&#x0025; of livestock owners reported having seen tsetse and horse flies, respectively, while 100&#x0025; of livestock assistants reported having seen tsetse flies. Forty-seven percent of the livestock owners indicated a positive attitude toward control measures, while 42&#x0025; of them had no idea how to control tsetse flies. On the other hand, 57&#x0025; of livestock assistants believe that tsetse and horse flies are the main reasons why AAT is still in their community. There was a statistically significant difference between all the respondents&#x2019; characteristics and the practices done by livestock owners to prevent AAT vectors from biting their animals. <i>Conclusion</i>. This study shows that trypanosomiasis is still a major problem for livestock health and production in The Gambia, and it requires disease and vector control.

Alpha Kargbo

Edrisa Jawo

Amien Isaac Amoutchi

Herve Koua

Rex Kuye

Zainabou Dabre

Abdoulie Bojang

Rafael F. C. Vieira

Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice of Livestock Owners and Livestock Assistants towards African Trypanosomiasis Control in The Gambia

<i>Background</i>. The community plays key roles in protecting pregnant women in rural areas from malaria. This study assessed malaria experiences, knowledge, perceived roles in malaria prevention in pregnancy, and acceptability of community-directed distribution of intermittent preventive therapy (IPTp) for malaria in pregnancy in rural Southeast Nigeria. <i>Methods</i>. This study presents part of the baseline findings of a before-and-after study. Data was collected from 817 community members in Ebonyi State using interviewer-administered questionnaires and focus group discussions (FGDs). Data were analyzed using SPSS version 20 and thematic analysis. <i>Results</i>. The majority of the respondents were females (73.8%) with a mean age of <span class="inline_break"><svg xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="38.461pt" style="vertical-align:-0.3499298pt" id="M1" height="8.69875pt" version="1.1" viewBox="-0.0498162 -8.34882 38.461 8.69875"><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,0,0)"><path id="g113-52" d="M285 378C315 398 338 416 353 432C373 451 384 474 384 503C384 579 325 635 236 635H235C182 635 136 610 108 579L65 516L85 496C110 533 150 575 205 575C258 575 300 543 300 481C300 407 232 369 141 339L147 310C163 315 188 321 211 321C268 321 338 284 338 192C338 94 288 40 217 40C160 40 119 68 93 91C85 98 77 97 69 91C60 84 47 71 46 58C44 46 48 35 62 22C75 10 116 -12 162 -12C234 -12 424 62 424 224C424 297 373 359 285 376V378Z"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,6.24,0)"><path id="g113-55" d="M137 343C167 482 260 545 321 574C357 591 397 603 429 609L423 641C382 634 335 622 295 608C189 570 37 457 37 238C37 84 125 -12 242 -12C362 -12 447 89 447 209C447 311 374 393 267 393C247 393 226 386 204 376L137 343ZM227 337C318 337 361 256 361 173C361 105 336 22 258 22C176 22 126 120 126 240C126 266 127 291 132 310C155 323 189 337 227 337Z"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,12.48,0)"><path id="g113-47" d="M113 -12C146 -12 170 11 170 46C170 78 146 103 114 103S58 78 58 46C58 11 82 -12 113 -12Z"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,15.444,0)"><path id="g113-49" d="M241 635C89 635 35 457 35 312C35 153 89 -12 240 -12C390 -12 443 166 443 312C443 466 390 635 241 635ZM238 602C329 602 354 454 354 312C354 172 330 22 240 22C152 22 124 173 124 313S148 602 238 602Z"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,21.684,0)"><path id="g113-57" d="M249 635C141 635 70 555 70 471C70 401 114 353 179 316C143 294 106 267 90 252C68 231 45 202 45 157C45 50 130 -12 237 -12C322 -12 435 52 435 169C435 256 372 304 303 343C349 374 375 398 383 407C401 429 411 458 411 487C411 569 344 635 249 635ZM238 603C285 603 337 567 337 482C337 422 310 385 276 358C205 393 145 426 145 500C145 552 179 603 238 603ZM248 20C183 20 125 70 125 163C125 218 158 268 206 300C284 261 355 217 355 143C355 66 308 20 248 20Z"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,30.83,0)"><path id="g117-37" d="M535 290V340H323V533H265V340H52V290H265V84H323V290H535ZM535 -22V28H52V-22H535Z"/></g></svg><span class="ibiop"/><span class="nowrap"><svg xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="21.998pt" style="vertical-align:-0.3499298pt" height="8.69875pt" version="1.1" viewBox="41.3161838 -8.34882 21.998 8.69875"><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,41.366,0)"><path id="g113-50" d="M384 0V27C293 34 287 42 287 114V635C232 613 172 594 109 583V559L157 557C201 555 205 550 205 499V114C205 42 199 34 109 27V0H384Z"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,47.606,0)"><path id="g113-54" d="M153 550H386L412 615L406 623H120L82 318C104 327 142 338 184 338C294 338 347 275 347 187C347 112 305 39 221 39C160 39 119 71 97 89C88 97 80 96 71 90C59 80 50 67 49 57C48 45 52 36 66 23C80 9 123 -12 169 -12C221 -11 288 15 342 59C403 109 431 165 431 225C431 308 366 395 238 395C212 395 165 379 127 364L153 550Z"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,53.847,0)"><use xlink:href="#g113-47"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,56.811,0)"><path id="g113-53" d="M456 178V225H360V632H320C217 496 115 347 20 206V178H280V106C280 40 276 34 189 27V0H445V27C364 34 360 39 360 106V178H456ZM280 225H82C149 335 214 431 278 520H280V225Z"/></g></svg>.</span></span> Most respondents (65.2%) had Insecticide-Treated Net (ITN) and fever in the past year (67.1%). Malaria (88.6%) was identified as the major health condition in the community. Majority (74.1%) knew infected mosquito bites as the cause of malaria while 61.1% and 71.5% were definitely sure that pregnant women and children were at risk for malaria. Sleeping under ITN (54.3%), clean environment (39.7%), and herbal medications (26.8%) were the main ways of malaria prevention cited. Only 18.4% of the participants rated their knowledge of IPTp as adequate, and only 9.3% knew the common drug names used for IPTp. The major perceived roles in malaria prevention in pregnancy were referral of pregnant women to the health facility, encouragement of household ITN use, and sustaining malaria-related projects. The majority of the participants (60.6%) strongly agreed that community-directed distribution of IPTp-SP will improve the prevention of malaria in pregnancy. Most (77.2%) considered community-directed distribution of IPTp acceptable, and 74.4% of the pregnant respondents preferred community to facility administration of IPTp. <i>Conclusions</i>. Malaria was recognized as a prevalent disease, but there was inadequate knowledge of malaria prevention in pregnancy notably intermittent preventive therapy. There was positive perception of roles in malaria prevention in pregnancy and high acceptability of community-directed distribution of IPTp. Community-level malaria control programs should utilize a whole-of–community approach to optimally engage and educate the community on malaria prevention in pregnancy as well as explore community distribution approach for IPTp.

Ijeoma Nkem Okedo-Alex

Ifeyinwa Chizoba Akamike

Johnbosco Ifunanya Nwafor

Chihurumnanya Alo

Adaoha Pearl Agu

Dejene Derseh Abateneh

Chigozie Jesse Uneke

Community Malaria Knowledge, Experiences, Perceived Roles, and Acceptability of Community-Directed Distribution of Intermittent Preventive Therapy for Pregnancy in Rural Southeast Nigeria

Gastrointestinal parasites and their anthelmintic resistance are major constraints to goat production in Ethiopia. Experimental investigation by faecal egg count reduction test (FECRT) and larval cultures were used to assess the occurrence of anthelmintic resistance in naturally infected goats with gastrointestinal nematodes (GIN) in Haramaya, Ethiopia. One hundred goats with a minimum of 150 eggs per gram (EPG) count were selected and randomly divided into five groups, 20 goats in each group, four treated and one untreated group. The result of the faecal egg count reduction test percentage (FECRT&#x0025;) and the lower 95&#x0025; confidence limit showed the presence of anthelmintic resistance for all tested drugs except tetramisole. FECRT&#x0025; and lower 95&#x0025; confidence limit were 69.9&#x0025; and 36.9 for albendazole, 84.3&#x0025; and 66.1 for tetraclozan, 95.7&#x0025; and 87.4 for tetramisole, and 71.1&#x0025; and 38.2 for ivermectin, respectively. <i>Trichostrongylus</i>, <i>Teladorsagia</i>, and <i>Haemonchus</i> showed anthelmintic resistance for tested drugs. Coproculture from different treatment groups revealed <i>Trichostrongylus</i> (69.2&#x0025; in ivermectin and 59.6&#x0025; in albendazole) were the predominant nematode followed by <i>Teladorsagia</i> (21.9&#x0025; in albendazole and 14.7&#x0025; in ivermectin). In tetraclozan treatment group, <i>Trichostrongylus</i> (42&#x0025;) and <i>Teladorsagia</i> (41.3&#x0025;) were comparable, followed by <i>Haemonchus</i> (13&#x0025;). In group treated with tetramisole, <i>Teladorsagia</i> (54.3&#x0025;) were the most frequently detected nematode followed by <i>Trichostrongylus</i> (25.7&#x0025;) and <i>Haemonchus</i> (11.4&#x0025;). Therefore, this study demonstrated the presence of multidrug resistant nematodes that may limit the productivity of goats. Moreover, further studies covering wider areas of Ethiopia and mechanisms of nematode resistance need to be studied in the future.

Anteneh Wondimu

Yehualashet Bayu

Anthelmintic Drug Resistance of Gastrointestinal Nematodes of Naturally Infected Goats in Haramaya, Ethiopia

Onchocerciasis is a parasitic infection affecting a relatively small population globally but has very devastating pathological outcomes. Ivermectin and recently moxidectin are the only drugs approved for clinical management of the disease, both of which have several limitations. In particular, they are efficacious against microfilariae (microfilaricidal) with no activity against adult worms (nonmacrofilaricidal). Promising anthelmintic activity has been reported in some lichens. This study investigated three lichens, <i>Usnea articulata</i>, <i>Parmotrema tinctorum</i>, and <i>Heterodermia obscurata</i>, found on Mount Cameroon, for potential macrofilaricidal activity. Organic extracts were screened for anti-Onchocerca activity against <i>Onchocerca ochengi</i> isolated from cattle skin using worm motility and MTT formazan assays. Toxicity of highly active extracts was investigated on monkey kidney epithelial (LLCMK2) cells and in BALB/c mice (2000 mg/kg body weight) including effects on liver enzymes. The methanol extract of <i>P. tinctorum</i> (Pam<sub>met</sub>) was the most active against adult male worms (<span class="inline_break"><svg xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="33.785pt" style="vertical-align:-3.29106pt" id="M1" height="12.0444pt" version="1.1" viewBox="-0.0498162 -8.75334 33.785 12.0444"><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,0,0)"><path id="g190-74" d="M303 0V28C221 34 213 39 213 125V525C213 610 221 616 303 622V650H38V622C120 616 128 610 128 525V125C128 40 120 34 38 28V0H303Z"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,4.45,0)"><path id="g190-68" d="M614 175C564 76 510 21 408 21C256 21 146 149 146 336C146 488 235 629 402 629C510 629 570 586 597 480L626 488C620 541 614 582 606 638C578 643 510 665 429 665C206 665 44 527 44 316C44 157 153 -15 402 -15C474 -15 558 5 586 11C604 45 629 119 643 165L614 175Z"/></g><g transform="matrix(.0091,0,0,-0.0091,13.127,3.132)"><path id="g50-54" d="M158 548H390L417 615L410 623H122L83 318C105 326 143 337 185 337C296 337 350 275 350 188C350 116 308 42 225 42C164 42 122 74 100 93C90 101 82 99 72 92C60 82 51 68 50 59C48 46 52 38 66 24C82 9 125 -12 172 -12C225 -11 292 15 346 59C408 108 437 166 437 226C437 309 371 397 242 397C214 397 170 382 133 369L158 548Z"/></g><g transform="matrix(.0091,0,0,-0.0091,17.559,3.132)"><path id="g50-49" d="M245 635C92 635 37 457 37 312C37 149 91 -12 244 -12C395 -12 449 166 449 312C449 469 395 635 245 635ZM243 598C332 598 358 454 358 312C358 173 334 26 245 26C158 26 128 174 128 313S152 598 243 598Z"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,26.154,0)"><path id="g117-34" d="M535 323V373H52V323H535ZM535 138V188H52V138H535Z"/></g></svg><span class="irelop"></span><svg xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="15.631pt" style="vertical-align:-3.29106pt" height="12.0444pt" version="1.1" viewBox="37.366183799999995 -8.75334 15.631 12.0444"><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,37.416,0)"><path id="g113-57" d="M249 635C141 635 70 555 70 471C70 401 114 353 179 316C143 294 106 267 90 252C68 231 45 202 45 157C45 50 130 -12 237 -12C322 -12 435 52 435 169C435 256 372 304 303 343C349 374 375 398 383 407C401 429 411 458 411 487C411 569 344 635 249 635ZM238 603C285 603 337 567 337 482C337 422 310 385 276 358C205 393 145 426 145 500C145 552 179 603 238 603ZM248 20C183 20 125 70 125 163C125 218 158 268 206 300C284 261 355 217 355 143C355 66 308 20 248 20Z"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,43.656,0)"><path id="g113-47" d="M113 -12C146 -12 170 11 170 46C170 78 146 103 114 103S58 78 58 46C58 11 82 -12 113 -12Z"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,46.62,0)"><path id="g113-50" d="M384 0V27C293 34 287 42 287 114V635C232 613 172 594 109 583V559L157 557C201 555 205 550 205 499V114C205 42 199 34 109 27V0H384Z"/></g></svg></span> <i>μ</i>g/mL) with the highest selectivity index (<span class="inline_break"><svg xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="21.741pt" style="vertical-align:-0.2324905pt" id="M2" height="8.98583pt" version="1.1" viewBox="-0.0498162 -8.75334 21.741 8.98583"><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,0,0)"><path id="g190-84" d="M409 504C401 567 396 607 392 642C354 654 312 665 266 665C137 665 60 583 60 487C60 374 161 325 225 290C300 250 355 215 355 141C355 68 311 21 235 21C131 21 86 122 71 183L41 176C48 128 61 42 68 21C78 16 93 8 118 0C142 -7 175 -15 216 -15C349 -15 438 69 438 174C438 287 344 333 265 374C186 414 138 449 138 522C138 576 172 631 249 631C336 631 363 562 380 499L409 504Z"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,6.005,0)"><use xlink:href="#g190-74"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,14.11,0)"><use xlink:href="#g117-34"/></g></svg><span class="irelop"></span><span class="nowrap"><svg xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="21.893pt" style="vertical-align:-0.2324905pt" height="8.98583pt" version="1.1" viewBox="25.323183800000002 -8.75334 21.893 8.98583"><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,25.373,0)"><path id="g113-51" d="M412 140C382 77 369 73 315 73H129L270 222C362 320 402 379 402 466C402 571 322 635 234 635C177 635 130 609 99 576L42 495L64 475C90 514 133 568 201 568C274 568 318 519 318 435C318 349 255 267 193 193C144 135 87 78 32 23V0H405C417 45 427 89 440 131L412 140Z"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,31.613,0)"><use xlink:href="#g113-50"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,37.853,0)"><use xlink:href="#g113-47"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,40.817,0)"><path id="g113-52" d="M285 378C315 398 338 416 353 432C373 451 384 474 384 503C384 579 325 635 236 635H235C182 635 136 610 108 579L65 516L85 496C110 533 150 575 205 575C258 575 300 543 300 481C300 407 232 369 141 339L147 310C163 315 188 321 211 321C268 321 338 284 338 192C338 94 288 40 217 40C160 40 119 68 93 91C85 98 77 97 69 91C60 84 47 71 46 58C44 46 48 35 62 22C75 10 116 -12 162 -12C234 -12 424 62 424 224C424 297 373 359 285 376V378Z"/></g></svg>).</span></span> <i>U. articulata</i> was the most active against the adult female (<span class="inline_break"><svg xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="33.785pt" style="vertical-align:-3.29106pt" id="M3" height="12.0444pt" version="1.1" viewBox="-0.0498162 -8.75334 33.785 12.0444"><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,0,0)"><use xlink:href="#g190-74"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,4.45,0)"><use xlink:href="#g190-68"/></g><g transform="matrix(.0091,0,0,-0.0091,13.127,3.132)"><use xlink:href="#g50-54"/></g><g transform="matrix(.0091,0,0,-0.0091,17.559,3.132)"><use xlink:href="#g50-49"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,26.154,0)"><use xlink:href="#g117-34"/></g></svg><span class="irelop"></span><svg xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="21.894pt" style="vertical-align:-3.29106pt" height="12.0444pt" version="1.1" viewBox="37.366183799999995 -8.75334 21.894 12.0444"><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,37.416,0)"><use xlink:href="#g113-52"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,43.657,0)"><path id="g113-55" d="M137 343C167 482 260 545 321 574C357 591 397 603 429 609L423 641C382 634 335 622 295 608C189 570 37 457 37 238C37 84 125 -12 242 -12C362 -12 447 89 447 209C447 311 374 393 267 393C247 393 226 386 204 376L137 343ZM227 337C318 337 361 256 361 173C361 105 336 22 258 22C176 22 126 120 126 240C126 266 127 291 132 310C155 323 189 337 227 337Z"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,49.897,0)"><use xlink:href="#g113-47"/></g><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,52.861,0)"><use xlink:href="#g113-52"/></g></svg></span> <i>μ</i>g/mL) but had a low SI value (3.4). No mortality and no adverse effects were recorded in the acute toxicity test. These two most active extracts had no significant effect on liver enzymes, alanine aminotransferase, and aspartate (<svg xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" style="vertical-align:-0.0498209pt" id="M4" height="8.68572pt" version="1.1" viewBox="-0.0498162 -8.6359 8.15071 8.68572" width="8.15071pt"><g transform="matrix(.013,0,0,-0.013,0,0)"><path id="g113-81" d="M600 480C600 590 528 650 384 650H143L137 622C222 614 225 607 210 531L130 127C113 41 106 36 23 28L17 0H294L300 28C204 36 195 42 212 127L243 284L314 263C327 263 339 263 352 264C465 271 600 337 600 480ZM508 481C508 351 402 304 329 304C289 304 265 311 250 317L295 559C302 594 310 606 323 611C335 616 350 619 367 619C455 619 508 573 508 481Z"/></g></svg> values &lt; 0.05), but a high AST : ALT ratio (2.59) for Pam<sub>met</sub> indicates likely reversible adverse hepatic toxicity. The high macrofilaricidal activity and selectivity of <i>P. tinctorum</i> suggest it is a potential source of new macrofilaricides which should be further investigated to identify its bioactive constituents.

Thierry Roland Kang

Jerome Nyhalah Dinga

Ayuk Elizabeth Orock

Elvis Monya

Moses Njutain Ngemenya

Macrofilaricidal Activity, Acute and Biochemical Effects of Three Lichen Species Found on Mount Cameroon

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<p><em>Journal of Parasitology Research</em> publishes papers in all areas of basic and applied parasitology, including host-parasite relationships, parasitic diseases, disease vectors, and the social and economic issues around the impact of parasites.</p>


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Journal of Parasitology Research publishes papers in all areas of basic and applied parasitology, including host-parasite relationships, parasitic diseases, disease vectors, and the social and economic issues around the impact of parasites.

Journal of Parasitology Research