A Model with Leaf Area Index and Trunk Diameter for LoRaWAN Radio Propagation in Eastern China Mixed Forest

Table 1

Comparison of LPWAN technologies.

	LoRa	NB-IoT	Sigfox	ZigBee	WiFi
Frequency	868 MHz (EU); 915 MHz (USA); 433 MHz (Asia)	Depends on the frequency licensed to LTE	868 MHz (EU); 915 MHz (USA); 433 MHz (Asia)	868 MHz (EU); 915 MHz (USA); 433 MHz (Asia); 2.4GHz	2.4 GHz and 5 GHz
Transmission distance	Long (1-2 km in urban, 20 km in rural)	Long (10 km in rural)	Long (40 km in rural)	Short (10-100 m)	Short (50 -100 m)
Data transfer rate	0.3-50 kbps	160 kbps-250 kbps	100 bps	250 kbps	2.4 Gbps
Theoretical battery life	10 years/AA battery	10 years/AA battery	10 years/AA battery	1 year/AA battery	1 year/AA battery
Network delay	1 sec-3 sec	6 sec-10 sec	20 sec-25 sec	Less than 1 sec	Less than 1 sec
Networking mode	Gateway-based	Telecommunication operator-based	Gateway-based	Gateway-based	Gateway-based