Potential Impacts of Climate Change on the Toxicity of Pesticides towards Earthworms

Table 1

Effects of climate change parameters on the toxicity of pesticides towards earthworms.

Study	Climate change parameters					Earthworm species	Pesticide used	Effects on the life-cycle traits of earthworms and biomarkers
	Temperature	Precipitation/soil moisture	pH	Ultraviolet radiation	Acidification
Friis et al. [76]	N/A	Soil water potentials from pF 1.5 (wet) to pF 5 (very dry) were obtained	N/A	N/A	N/A	Aporrectodea caliginosa	Copper	With the increasing drought level, the whole-body burden of copper increased from about 40 microg Cu g^−1 dry weight to about 90 microg Cu g^−1. When the worms were exposed to drought, the osmolality in their body fluids increased.
Booth et al. [77]	5–20°C	15–30% WHC	N/A	N/A	N/A	Aporrectodea caliginosa	N/A	ChE and GST activity increased with temperature.
Uvarov et al. [78]	Temperature fluctuations (2°C ± 5°C)	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	Lumbricus rubellus and Dendrobaena octaedra	N/A	Increase in temperature increased earthworm growth and reproduction rate.
Velki and Ečimović [79]	15, 20, and 25°C	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	Eisenia fetida	Imidacloprid, alpha-cypermethrin, indoxacarb, combined chlorpyrifos and cypermethrin, lambda-cyhalothrin, combined difenoconazole and propiconazole, combined azoxystrobin and cyproconazole, tembotrione, imazamox, diquat, fluazifop-p-butyl, glyphosate	Increase in temperature mostly resulted in increased pesticide toxicity, whereas toxicity decreased at lower temperature; investigation of mechanisms by which temperature affects the toxicity is required.
Lima et al. [80]	8, 20, and 28°C	55% WHC	5.8	N/A	N/A	Eisenia andrei	Carbaryl	Synergistic ratios showed a tendency to synergism at high temperatures; temperature increased the deleterious effects of carbaryl to Eisenia andrei.
De Silva et al. [81]	20 ± 2°C, 26 ± 2°C	50% WHC	5.9–6.1	N/A	N/A	Eisenia andrei	Carbendazim, carbofuran, and chlorpyrifos	Survival was more sensitive at the higher temperature; effects on reproduction and growth varied inconsistently with temperature and soil types; pesticide toxicity decreased in the order carbendazim > carbofuran > chlorpyrifos.
Bandeira et al. [82]	20, 25, and 28°C	60% WHC	6.0	N/A	N/A	Eisenia andrei	Imidacloprid	Toxicity of insecticides showed a tendency to increase with an increase in temperature, and this was evident both in the number of juveniles and the percentage of initial weight.
Zoua et al. [83]	20°C	35% WHC	Varied	N/A	Acidified soils (pH = 5.5, 4.3, and 3.1)	Eisenia fetida	Chlorpyrifos, triazophos, and dimethoate	The toxicity of OPs was slightly increased with the decrease of soil pH; bioavailability and toxicodynamics are key factors for toxicity variation.
Hackenberger et al. [84]	20 and 25°C	30% and 50% WHC	6.0 ± 0.5	N/A	N/A	Eisenia fetida	Propiconazole and chlorantraniliprole	Applied temperature and soil moisture combinations affected the selected biomarkers; the most important interaction was between concentration and temperature.