|
Target mediator in inflammatory cascade | Therapeutic intervention | Outcome | Literature examples |
|
General inflammation | Minocycline | Attenuation of ischemic deficits are inhibition of apoptotic neuronal cell death after MCAO. Better outcome from stroke in patients | [54–56, 78] |
Intravenous immunoglobulin therapy | Elimination of mortality and reduction of brain damage after MCAO in mice | [58, 59] |
|
Complement inhibition | Cobra venom factor (CVF) | Reduced infarct and atrophy are improved clinical outcome | [79, 80] |
C1 inhibition: C1-INH | Neuroprotection | [81] |
C3 inhibition: sCR1, C3 KO | Reduced infarct volume and neurological deficit score | [82, 83] |
C5 inhibition: C5 KO | Improvement of functional outcome, reduced brain damage | [58] |
|
Leukocytes | Neutrophil inhibitory factor | Neuroprotection after focal ischemia in rats and reduction of the number of infiltrated neutrophils and infarct volume | [84, 85] |
|
Lymphocytes T | Sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor agonist FTY720 (Fingolimod) | Reduction of infarct volume and cell death and improvement of neurological score after MCAO in rats | [57, 86, 87] |
|
Prostaglandins | Cyclooxygenase pathway: Ibuprofen | Restoration of plasticity in visual and somatosensory cortex after photothrombotic stroke in mice without the neuroprotective effect | [35, 36] |
COX-2 KO | Reduction in the brain injury after MCAO in mice | [88] |
|
Cytokines | IL-1: | | |
IL-1 receptor antagonist | Administration of human interleukin-1 receptor antagonist reduced damage caused by MCAO in rats | [64, 66] |
IL-1 KO | 70% reduction of infarct volume after MCAO | [65, 89, 90] |
IL-1R1 null mice | reduced brain damage and increased neuronal survival after ligation of right common carotid artery in mice | [91] |
TNFα: | | |
Anti-TNF antibodies | Blocking endogenous TNF-alpha reduced focal ischemic brain injury in mice and rats after MCAO | [62, 92] |
TNF decoy receptor | Reduction of stroke volume, neural deficits, extent of microglial cell activation, and apoptotic cell death after MCAO in mice | [93, 94] |
Soluble TNFα receptor (TNFbp) | Reduction of infarct size after MCAO in mice | [75] |
|