Mean age: ~48 years Mean MS duration ~15 years Median EDSS: N/R Course: 13 RR, 2 PP, and 1 SP
Double-blind randomized controlled group
Active group: modified story memory technique
45–60-minute sessions, 2 times per week, for 5 weeks Control group: story reading and answering questions
45–60-minute sessions, 2 times per week, for 5 weeks
CVLT short-delay free recall improved in active group
Increased activation of some areas of frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital lobes and cerebellum in active group
Mean age: ~38 years Mean MS duration ~14 years Median EDSS: 2.0 Course: 8 RR
Nonrandomized controlled trial
Active group: Motor visual imagery training
2-hour sessions, 1 time per week, for 6 weeks Control group: no intervention
Autobiographic memory improved in active group
Increased activation of some areas located in posterior regions (right cuneus, left precuneus, left inferior and superior occipital gyri, and left lateral temporal cortex)
Mean age: ~46 years Mean MS duration ~14 years Median EDSS: 2.0 Course: 20 RR
Randomized controlled trial
Active group: outpatient cognitive training using the RehaCom package 1-hour sessions, 3 times per week, for 12 weeks Control group: no intervention
The PASAT, WCST, and oral word association test improved in active group
(i) Increased activation of posterior cingulated cortex and/or prefrontal cortex (bilaterally) in active group; (ii) increased activation at rest of anterior cingulated cortex (salience processing), left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (executive function), right inferior parietal lobule and posterior cingulated cortex, and/or precuneus (default-mode networks I and II); (iii) no significant WM and GM changes
Mean age: ~32 years Mean MS duration ~9 years Median EDSS: 2.5 Course: 23 RR
Double-blind randomized controlled trial
Active group: outpatient cognitive training using the RehaCom package
1-hour sessions, 2 times per week, for 6 weeks Control group: home-based training with a simple visuomotor coordination task (in-house software)
1-hour sessions, 2 times per week, for 6 weeks
The Stroop test improved in active group
Increased activation of the right posterior cerebellar lobule and left superior parietal lobule in active group
CVLT: California Verbal Learning Test; GM: grey matter; N/R: not reported; PASAT: Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test; PP: primary progressive; RR: relapsing-remitting; SP: secondary progressive; WCST: Wisconsin Card Sort Test; WM: white matter. The number within parentheses refers to the sample size of healthy subjects.