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| Authors | Age/parity | Gestational age (wk) | Antenatal course | Mode of delivery | Macroscopical lesion | Hystopathological examination | Fetal outcome |
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| Towers et al. [3] | 23/1 | 31 | Decreased fetal movements for 18 hours | Cesarean | Umbilical cord hematoma 3 × 2 cm | Hematoma associated with umbilical vein. Thrombotic material was seen within the vein, but the vein was not totally occluded; the umbilical arteries were compressed to the side but patent. | None/AS 7 at 1 min and 9 at 5 min |
| 22/0 | 40 | Decreased fetal movements for 30 hours | Cesarean | Umbilical cord hematoma 4 × 2 cm | Vein/arterial lumens were compressed but both patent. | None/discharged well at follow up at 18 months/AS 2 at 1 min, 6 at 5 min and 8 at 10 min |
| 39/1 | 38 | Absent fetal movements for 14 hours | Cesarean | Umbilical cord hematoma 3 × 2 cm | Vein/umbilical arteries appeared patent. | None/AS 8 at 1 min and 9 at 5 min |
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| Barbati et al. [4] | 44/1 | 40 | Reduction of fetal movements, FHR with severe reduced variability of <5 bpm and late decelerations | Cesarean | Large cord hematoma (5 × 3.7 × 2.6) at 3 cm from the fetal insertion | Two arteries and one vein with no other abnormalities in the form of knots and loops. Extravasation of blood into the surrounding Wharton’s jelly caused by the rupture of a dilated umbilical artery | Tachypnea, cyanosis, and anemia without any other physical or neurological damage/AS 6 at 1 min and 9 at 5 min |
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| Kumar et al. [5] | 31/1 | 36 | Two vessel-cord, right pelvic kidney, decreased fetal movement for 12 hours | Cesarean | Marginal umbilical cord insertion, avulsed umbilical artery rupture: single artery is shown to be ruptured at the site of cord insertion to the placenta. | Fetal branch artery ruptured with a vessel wall significant for mild acute inflammation and necrotic muscle cells. | Tachycardia, tachypnea, and polyuric acute kidney failure secondary to cortical-sparing acute tubular necrosis; discharged well at 14 day/AS 3 and 5 at 1 and 5 min |
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| Jouannelle et al. [6] | Not given | At term | Decreased fetal movements, fetal heart decelerations | Cesarean | Massive umbilical cord hematoma at the skin junction, with cord compression | Not given | Baby was flat/AS 0 at 1 min, 3 at 5 min, 7 at 10 min.
Postnatal evolution: coma, total hypotonia, no archaic reflex, and hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. The newborn died of multiorgan failure on day 6 of life. |
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| Tonni et al. [7] | 19/0 | At term | Loss of fetal heart lasting 90 seconds, at birth | Vaginal | Fresh hematoma in the cord | A rupture in the wall of the umbilical vein with discontinuity in the layers of the subintimal and internal elastic lamina. One umbilical artery presented peripheral dissection, subintimal myxoid degeneration, and widespread disruption of the elastic fibers; marked reduction in myofibroblasts in Wharton’s jelly.
Amniotic band at umbilical cord insertion into the chorionic plate, markedly congested chorionic vessels with dispersed distribution and convoluted decourse.
The membranes had diffuse chorioamnionitis (E. coli infection). | Sever mixed acidosis, fetal anemia, and severe HIE/AS 3 at 1, 5, and 10 min
Follow-up at the age of 4 years: spastic tetraplegia, seizures, central deafness, and blindness |
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| Abraham et al. [8] | 27/multipara | 35 | Decreased fetal movements (ultrasound scan confirmed fetal death) | Vaginal | Central cord insertion. Umbilical cord had 4-5 sausage shaped swellings suggestive of cord hematoma of varying sizes all along the length of the cord with the largest measuring 6 × 3 cm | Cord had multiple swellings suggestive of umbilical cord hematoma.
Chorioamnionitis | Stillbirth |
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| McAdams and Chabra [9] | 32/1 | At term | Uneventful | Vaginal | Umbilical cord hematoma | Not given | None |
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| Hooper and Sebire [10] | Not given | At term | Uneventful | Vaginal | Umbilical cord proximal to the baby has dark red discoloration and increased thickness, measuring 4.5 in diameter at the widest part. | Not given | None |
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| Arora et al. [11] | Not given | 39 | Uneventful | Vaginal | A 4 cm and 2 cm wide reddish purple, nontender swelling in the cord proximal to the level of the skin | Not given | None
AS 8 and 9 at 1 and 5 min |
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