Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress and Parkinson’s Disease: The Role of HRD1 in Averting Apoptosis in Neurodegenerative Disease

Figure 1

Cellular responses to ER stress. ER stress due to hypoxia and other factors results in the accumulation of unfolded proteins that trigger the UPR. The UPR is composed of three pathways: induction of ER chaperones by the activation of IRE1𝛼-XBP1, ATF6, and PERK-eIF2𝛼, inhibition of protein synthesis by the phosphorylation of PERK-eIF2𝛼, and ERAD.