Metal Dyshomeostasis and Inflammation in Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s Diseases: Possible Impact of Environmental Exposures

Table 2

Environmental toxins linked to neuronal diseases.

Environmental toxins (linked to brain disease)	Implicated disease/condition in humans or in animal studies	References
Cyanobacterial toxins (MCs, BMAA)	Tau hyperphosphorylation in AD (MC) and protein misfolding (BMAA)	[79, 83, 87]
Smoking	Dementia, AD	[25]
Paraquat	Cell death dopaminergic neurons (Bcl-2 induced) and PD possibly by mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress	[6, 136, 137]
Rotenone	Oxidative stress, potent inhibitor of mitochondrial complex I, nigrostriatal cell death (Bcl-2 induced) and PD	[8, 138]
Dieldrin	PD	[139]
Diesel exhaust particles (air pollution)	PD	[140]
Lindane	PD	[141]
Mancozeb	PD	[142]
Maneb	Oxidative stress, cell death (Bcl-2 induced), and PD	[6, 142]
3-nitropropionate	Inhibits succinate dehydrogenase; striatal degeneration; Huntington's disease	[143, 144]
Trichloroethylene	Mitochondrial dysfunction in striatum and PD	[145]
1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,5,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)	Oxidative stress, cell death (Bcl-2 induced), and PD	[7]
Insecticides (Lorsban, Dursban, or other chlorpyrifos products)	PD	[146]
Metals (e.g., manganese, copper)	PD	[147–149]
Nanoparticles in air emissions	Brain functional deficits?	[150]