Diabetes and the Brain: Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, and Autophagy

Figure 1

Scheme summarizing the involvement of oxidative stress (mitochondrial dysfunction and ER stress), inflammation, and autophagy in the diabetic brain. GSH: reduced glutathione; GSSG: glutathione disulfide; SOD: superoxide dismutase; NADP⁺: nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidized; NADPH: nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate reduced; NAD⁺: nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide oxidized; NADH: nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide reduced; CAT: catalase; IκBa: nuclear factor of kappa light polypeptide gene enhancer in B cells inhibitor, alpha; NFκB: nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells; ER: endoplasmic reticulum; GLU: glucose; INS: insulin; P: phosphate; MDA: malondialdehyde; ATP: adenosine triphosphate; ETC: electron transport chain; ROS: reactive oxygen species; MnSOD: manganese superoxide dismutase; GSR: glutathione reductase; CHOP: C/EBP Homology Protein; TNFα: tumor necrosis factor alpha; NOS: nitric oxide synthases.