Protective Mechanisms of Flavonoids in Parkinson’s Disease

Table 3

Types of polyphenol	Studied model: cell or animal	Outcome	References
Apigenin	BV-2 murine microglia cell line and cerebral artery occlusion-induced focal ischemia in mice	(i) Inhibiting production of nitric oxide and prostaglandin E2; (ii) Suppressing p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) phosphorylation; (iii) Protecting neuronal cells from injury in middle cerebral artery occlusion	Ha et al., 2008 [39]
Luteolin	Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induced primary mesencephalic neuron-glia	(i) Attenuating the decrease in dopamine uptake and loss of tyrosine hydroxylase; (ii) Inhibiting activation of microglia and excessive production of tumor necrosis factor-α, nitric oxide, and superoxide	Chen et al., 2008 [40]
Kaempferol	Rotenone-induced SH-SY5Y cells and primary neurons	(i) Enhancing mitochondrial turnover by autophagy	Filomeni et al., 2012 [41]
Myricetin	MPP^+-treated MES23.5 cells	(i) Attenuating cell loss and nuclear condensation; (ii) Suppressing the production of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS); (iii) Restoring the mitochondrial transmembrane potential; (iv) Increasing Bcl-2/Bax ratio and decreasing Caspase 3 activation; (v) Decreasing phosphorylation of MAPK kinase 4 and JNK	Zhang et al., 2011 [42]
Quercetin	Rotenone-induced rats	(i) Reducing cell loss in striatal dopamine; (ii) Scavenging hydroxyl radicals; (iii) Upregulating mitochondrial complex-I activity	Karuppagounder et al., 2013 [43]
Rutin	6-OHDA induced PC-12 neuronal cells	(i) Activating antioxidant enzymes (SOD, CAT, GPx, GSH); (ii) Suppressing lipid peroxidation	Magalingam et al., 2013 [31]
Isoquercitrin	6-OHDA induced PC-12 neuronal cells	(i) Activating antioxidant enzymes (SOD, CAT, GPx, GSH); (ii) Suppressing lipid peroxidation	Magalingam et al., 2014 [34]
Catechin	6-OHDA-lesioned rats	(i) Attenuating the increase in rotational behavior; (ii) Improving the locomotor activity; (iii) Restoring GSH levels, increasing dopamine and DOPAC content	Teixeira et al., 2013 [44]
(−)−Epigallocatechin 3-gallate	Serum deprived human SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells	(i) Inducing the levels of beta tubulin IV and tropomyosin 3; (ii) Increasing the levels of the binding protein 14-3-3 gamma; (iii) Decreasing protein levels and mRNA expression of the beta subunit of the enzyme prolyl 4-hydroxylase; (iv) Decreasing protein levels of the immunoglobulin-heavy-chain binding protein and the heat shock protein 90 beta	Weinreb et al., 2007 [45]
Hesperidin	6-OHDA induced aged mice	(i) Preventing memory impairment; (ii) Attenuating reduction in GPx and CAT activity, total reactive antioxidant potential, and the DA and its metabolite levels in the striatum; (iii) Attenuating reactive species levels and glutathione reductase	Antunes et al., 2014 [46]
Fisetin	lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulated BV-2 microglia cells	(i) Suppressing the production of TNF-α, nitric oxide, and PG E2; (ii) Inhibiting the gene expression of TNF-α, interleukin (IL-1β), COX-2, and (iNOS) at both mRNA and protein levels.; (iii) Suppressing IκB degradation, nuclear translocation of NF-κB, and phosphorylation of p38 MAPKs	Zheng et al., 2008 [47]
Naringenin	6-OHDA induced SH-SY5Y cells and mice	(i) Increasing in nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) protein levels and activating of antioxidant response pathway genes; (ii) Protecting nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons against neurodegeneration and oxidative damage	Lou et al., 2014 [48]
Theaflavin	MPTP-induced mouse	(i) Reducing oxidative stress; (ii) Improving motor behavior and expression of dopamine transporter and vesicular monoamine transporter 2 in striatum and substantia nigra.	Anandhan et al., 2012 [49]
Proanthocyanidin	Rotenone in a primary neuronal cell	(i) Protecting dopaminergic cell; (ii) Rescuing mitochondrial respiration in a dopaminergic cell line	Strathearn et al., 2014 [50]