Oxidative Stress and Mitochondrial Activation as the Main Mechanisms Underlying Graphene Toxicity against Human Cancer Cells

Figure 2

Schematic toxicity mechanisms of graphene on human cancer cells. Graphene provides the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) which are the cause of DNA (fragmentation and condensation) and cell membrane damage (release of LDH, lipid peroxidation, and increase in MDA-malondialdehyde), mitochondrial disorders (reduction of mitochondrial membrane potential ΔΨ, increase in Ca²⁺), and cell death.