How AMPK and PKA Interplay to Regulate Mitochondrial Function and Survival in Models of Ischemia and Diabetes

Figure 1

Non-redox-dependent physiological, pharmacological, natural compounds and other conditions that activate AMPK in ischemic preconditioning. This figure highlights some of the well-established and newly discovered AMPK activators or conditions that have benefits in ischemic preconditioning. Pharmacological activators such as metformin and AICAR, some natural compounds, and physiological situations such as exercise and calorie restriction can activate AMPK by increasing the AMP : ATP ratio (shown in the blue rectangle), causing AMP to bind to the γ-subunit. However, a subset of conditions or pharmacological compounds can stimulate AMPK activation in IPC via other mechanisms, such as activated upstream kinases of the α-subunit (shown in the rounded rectangle named “other measures in IPC”), or binding directly to the β-subunit (A769662).