ROS-Dependent Activation of Autophagy through the PI3K/Akt/mTOR Pathway Is Induced by Hydroxysafflor Yellow A-Sonodynamic Therapy in THP-1 Macrophages

Figure 1

Physical optics characterization of HSYA and SDT parameter selection. (a) The chemical structure, absorption spectrum, and fluorescence emission spectrum of HSYA (dissolved in ddH₂O). (b) Intracellular ROS generation of THP-1 macrophages was measured by DCFH-DA staining (scale bar: 50 μm). (c) Effects of HSYA with or without ultrasound irradiation on the viability of THP-1 macrophages. With (1) different concentrations of HSYA, (2) different HSYA exposure time, (3) different ultrasound intensity, (4) different ultrasound exposure time, (5) HSYA-SDT (different concentrations) (0.4 W/cm² ultrasound irradiation), (6) HSYA-SDT (0.6 mmol/L) (different ultrasound intensity), (7) HSYA-SDT (0.6 mmol/L) (different ultrasound exposure time), and (8) HSYA-SDT (0.6 mmol/L) (different time after SDT), cell viabilities were analyzed by CCK-8 assays. (d) Effects of different solvents of HSYA with or without ultrasound on the viability of THP-1 macrophages. Cell viabilities were analyzed by CCK-8 assays. (e) LC3-Ι, LC3-ΙΙ, p62, and beclin 1 protein expression was analyzed by Western blots post-HSYA-SDT (different concentrations), and quantifications of the LC3-ΙΙ/LC3-Ι ratio, p62, and beclin 1 are shown. All data are mean ± standard error (). , , and versus Control.

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