Oxidative Stress-Related Mechanisms and Antioxidant Therapy in Diabetic Retinopathy

Figure 3

The activation of the three main protein kinase C (PKC) isoforms induced by hyperglycemia. AGE, advanced glycation end-products; BRB, blood-retinal barrier; DAG, diacylglycerol; eNOS, endothelial nitric oxide synthase; ET-1, endothelin-1; NADPH, nicotinamide adenine dinnucleotide phosphate; NF-κB, nuclear factor-κB; PAI-1, plasminogen activator inhibitor-1; PDGFR, platelet-derived growth factor receptor-β; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor-α; VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor.