Neuropharmacological Potential and Delivery Prospects of Thymoquinone for Neurological Disorders

Table 2

Beneficial effects of TQ in epilepsy models.

Model	Doses	Mechanistic actions	References
PTZ-induced epilepsy model	200 and 400 μM	Extends the onset and reduces the tonic-clonic seizure duration	[113]
PTZ- and MES-induced epilepsy model	50 and 100 mg/kg	Potentiates SVP antiepileptic response	[114]
PTZ-induced epilepsy model	20 and 30 mg/kg	TQ and PB combination therapy produces additive anticonvulsant effect	[115]
PTZ-induced epilepsy model	TQ: 40 mg/kg; vitamin C: 250 mg/kg	Activates the GABAB1R/CaMKII/CREB pathway, significantly decreases Bax concentrations, increases Bcl-2 expression, and activates caspase-3	[116]
Penicillin-induced epilepsy model	10, 50, and 100 mg/kg	Prolongs latency time and reduces the spike wave frequency and amplitude of epileptiform activity	[33]
Kainic acid-induced epileptic model	10 mg/kg	Reduces neuronal degeneration (25%) in CA1, CA3, and the dentate hilus; suppresses mossy fiber sprouting (30–40%); treatment also enhances the neurogenesis	[117]
Lithium-pilocarpine rat model	10 mg/kg	Significantly lowered the severity of seizures and significantly elevated Nrf2, HO-1, and SOD expressions	[48]

PTZ: pentylenetetrazole; PB: phenobarbital; SVP: sodium valproate; GABAB1R: gamma-aminobutyric acid B1 receptor; CaMKII: calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II; CREB: cAMP response element-binding protein; MES: maximal electric shock; Bax: Bcl-2-associated X protein; Bcl-2: B-cell lymphoma protein-2; Nrf2: nuclear factor E2-related factor 2; HO-1: heme oxygenase-1; SOD: superoxide dismutase.