Non-Provitamin A and Provitamin A Carotenoids as Immunomodulators: Recommended Dietary Allowance, Therapeutic Index, or Personalized Nutrition?

Table 2

Comparison of carotenoid intake (mg/d) in adults reported in several countries.

Population (subjects)	α-Carotene	β-Carotene	β-Cryptoxanthin	Lutein + zeaxanthin	Lycopene	Dietary methods	Ref.
Australia,	1.25/1.13 (m/w)	5.14/5.27 (m/w)	0.32/0.35 (m/w)	1.62/1.70 (m/w)	7.11/6.26 (m/w)	FFQ	[39]
Costa Rica,	0.45/0.73 (m/w)	3.41/4.67 (m/w)	0.38/0.55 (m/w)	2.41/2.89 (m/w)	5.45/5.77 (m/w)	FFQ and 7-day diary	[40]
France,	0.74	5.84	0.45	2.50	4.75	FFQ	[32]
France,	—	3.14/3.79 (m/w)	—	—	—	6-day food diary	[41]
Ireland,	—	—	—	1.60	—	166-item FFQ	[42]
Italy (INRAN-SCAI study),	0.15/0.18 (m/w)	3.07/3.01 (m/w)	—	3.79/3.73 (m/w)	7.10/5.64 (m/w)	3-day food diary	[43, 44]
Japan JACC Study Group,	—	2.11 (m)	—	—	—	35-item FFQ	[45]
Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey,	0.56	3.62	0.55	2.300	2.22	1-day 24 h recall	[46]
Spain,	0.29	2.96	1.36	3.25	1.64	FFQ	[32]
Spain (EPIC cohort),	0.27	1.31	0.22	0.84	3.0	Dietary history questionnaire	[47]
Rep Ireland,	1.23	5.16	0.78	1.56	4.43	FFQ	[32]
The Netherlands,	0.68	4.35	0.97	2.01	4.86	FFQ	[32]
USA,	0.69/0.79 (m/w)	3.28/0.63 (m/w)	0.15/0.17 (m/w)	1.47/1.56 (m/w)	6.07/5.35 (m/w)	118-items FFQ	[48]
	0.98/0.91 (m/w)	4.09/3.82 (m/w)	0.16/0.13 (m/w)	2.88/2.25 (m/w)	5.79/4.64 (m/w)
USA,	0.78 (w)	4.40 (w)	0.18 (w)	0.30 (w)	6.34 (w)	FFQ	[49]
UK,	1.04	5.55	0.99	1.59	5.01	FFQ	[32]
UK (EPIC Norfolk cohort),	0.41/0.40 (m/w)	2.07/2.04 (m/w)	0.41/0.46 (m/w)	1.10/1.14 (m/w)	1.43/1.29 (m/w)	7-day diary	[50]

FFQ: food frequency questionnaire; m/w: men/women; JACC: Japan Collaborative Cohort; EPIC: European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. Hispanics and Non-Hispanics.