Non-Provitamin A and Provitamin A Carotenoids as Immunomodulators: Recommended Dietary Allowance, Therapeutic Index, or Personalized Nutrition?

Table 4

Effects of lycopene and β-carotene supplementation on cardiometabolic outcomes.

	Lycopene	Lutein	β-Carotene
Blood lipids	↓ Cholesterol [99]	↔ [135]	↑ Cholesterol and triglycerides (asbestos-exposed) [98]
	↔ Cholesterol [136]
Diabetes/insulin resistance		↔ Insulin resistance [135]	↔ Type 2 diabetes [137]
Diabetic macrovascular disease			↔ [138]
Metabolic syndrome		↓ [135]
Blood pressure	↓ [100, 136]	↔ [135]
CVD and nonfatal myocardial infarction			↑ [97, 98]
Stroke	↓ [113]
Intracerebral hemorrhage			↑ [96]
CV death			↑ [103]

↓: decrease; ↑: increase; ↔: no change; CVD: cardiovascular disease; CV: cardiovascular.