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System | Disorder | Model | Dose | Administration route | Pharmacological action | Reference |
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Endocrine system | Type 2 DM | Spontaneously obese Type 2 diabetic TSOD mice | 0.1% and 0.3% | Intragastric administration | Reducing the body weight and visceral fat accumulation and alleviating abnormal lipid metabolism and intrahepatic lipid accumulation | [16] |
Type 2 DM | Free fatty acid-treated HepG2 cells | 10, 50, 100 μM | Incubation | Blocking the accumulation of intracellular lipid resulted from the free fatty acid treatment and enhanced the PPARα expression | [16] |
Type 2 DM | HepG2 cell model of insulin resistance | 15.63-125 mg/L | Incubation | Promoting autophagy and inhibiting insulin resistance in the HepG2 cells, which may be associated with the dynamic regulation of the P62/NF-κB/GLUT-4 pathway | [123] |
Type 2 DM | Palmitate-treated INS-1 cells | 1, 10, 100 μM | Incubation | Relieving β-cell apoptosis via activation of the GLP-1 receptor | [132] |
Type 2 DM | Cultured mouse islets after challenge with diabetic stimuli | 20 μM | Incubation | Promoting β regeneration and survival via regulating β-catenin/TCF7L2 pathway | [132] |
Type 2 DM | HepG2 cells | 1, 10, 100 μM | Incubation | Suppressing hepatic glucose production via AMPK signaling pathway | [137] |
Type 1or 2 DM | High glucose-induced glucotoxic insulinoma cells | 10 μM | Incubation | Improving β-cell function and increasing the proliferation of β-cells exposed to prolonged hyperglycemia | [128] |
Type 1 DM | Rat pancreatic islets | 10 μM | Incubation | Stimulating insulin secretion in pancreatic β-cells by regulating GLP-1 receptor/cAMP signaling and Ca2+ channels | [133] |
Type 1 DM | Rat pancreatic INS-1 cells | 10 μM | Incubation | Enhancing glucose uptake via activating AMPK in pancreatic β cells | [138] |
Diabetic nephropathy | Diabetic rats induced by streptozotocin | 50, 100 mg/kg/d | Intragastric administration | Suppressing NF-κB mediated inflammation response | [135] |
|
Cardiovascular system | Myocardium I/R | Hypoxia/reoxygenation-induced H9c2 Cells | 10, 20, 40, 80 μM | Incubation | Enhancing mitochondrial function via the GLP-1 receptor mediated the PI3K/Akt signaling pathway | [10] |
Atherosclerosis | ApoE−/− mice fed a high-cholesterol diet | 100 mg/kg/d | Oral administration | Increasing proliferation of smooth muscle cells and suppressing inflammation | [94] |
Atherosclerosis | ApoE−/− mice fed a high-cholesterol diet | 100 mg/kg/d | Oral administration | Decreasing the dendritic cells numbers and inhibiting dendritic cell maturation in bone marrow and infiltration into lesions | [99] |
Atherosclerosis | ApoE−/− mice fed a high-cholesterol diet | 100 mg/kg/d | Oral administration | Regulating lipid and promoting the number and function of Treg cells | [103] |
Cardiac hypertrophy | Mice with transverse aortic constriction | 50 mg/kg/d | Oral administration | Activating the GLP-1 receptor/AMPKα pathway, inhibiting ERS and oxidative stress | [17] |
Cardiac fibrosis | Mice induced by isoprenaline | 50 mg/kg/d | Oral administration | Suppressing oxidative stress, ERS, and acetylated Smad3 in a SIRT1-dependent manner and inhibiting the phosphorylated-Samd3 pathway independent of SIRT1 activation | [78] |
Obesity-related cardiac injury | Mice induced by high-fat food | 50 mg/kg/d | Oral administration | Alleviating inflammation in a SIRT1-dependent manner and inhibiting cardiomyocyte apoptosis in a AMPKα-dependent manner | [92] |
Cerebral I/R injury | OGD/R-induced SH-SY5Y cells | 10 μM | Incubation | Inhibition of endoplasmic reticulum stress and autophagy | [108] |
Ischemic stroke. | tMCAO rats | 75 mg/kg/d | Intraperitoneal injections | Protecting neurons against post-ischemic neurovascular injury through the activation of GluN2A/AKT/ERK pathways | [115] |
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