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| Antioxidant | Effect on DR |
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| Resveratrol (RSV) | Reduces ROS levels and cleavage of caspase 3 in BREC (bovine retinal endothelial cells). Additionally, RSV shows antiapoptotic effects in vitro and in vivo on Muller cells with addition of miR-29b [155, 156]. |
| Citrus flavones (hesperidin) | Modulation of mitochondrial function and inhibition of caspase activation via a ROS-dependent p38 and JNK signalling pathway. Also protects retinal pigment cells from hyperglycemic effects [157, 158]. |
| Citrus flavones (hesperetin) | Prevents early- or late-stage microvasculopathy by its antiangiogenic properties. Protects Muller cell processes and photoreceptors with an increase in basement membrane thickness in diabetic retina [159, 160]. |
| Lipoic acid | Reduces VEGF levels and preserves retinal layer thickness and protects ganglion cells. Also, safeguards injured the retinas of diabetic rats by decreasing oxidative stress, partially via AMPK activation [161, 162]. |
| Telmisartan | Increases neurotrophic factors such as BDNF, CNTF, and TH by decreasing caspase-3 activity and increasing GSH levels in the serum and diabetic retina [163]. |
| Astaxanthin | Reduces hyperglycemia-induced abnormal proliferation and oxidative stress in retinal pigmented epithelial cells. Also downregulates retinal ganglion cell apoptosis by inhibiting oxidative stress [164, 165]. |
| Hydrogen sulphide | Suppresses oxidative stress and exhibits neuroprotective effects on the retina and ablates oxidative stress and inflammation in STZ-induced diabetic rats. However, during PDR stage, increased H2S levels are detected in the vitreous cavity and require further studies to understand H2S’s role in therapeutics [166, 167]. |
| Tauroursodeoxycholic acid (TUDCA) | Suppresses inflammatory cytokines and molecules such as NF-kappa B, ICAM-1, and NOS (nitric oxide synthase). Also decreases the levels of VEGF and exerts neuroprotective effects in an experimental retinal detachment model [168, 169]. |
| Curcumin | Exhibits hypoglycemic, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory properties in diabetic rats. Additionally downregulates VEGF and has neuroprotective properties [170, 171]. |
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