Protective Effects of Dietary Antioxidants against Vanadium-Induced Toxicity: A Review

Figure 2

Scheme showing the putative cellular sites of action targeted by some dietary antioxidants during vanadium intoxication. Whether polyphenols (e.g., EGCG) and phytosterols (e.g., stigmasterol and β-sitosterol) act as direct antioxidants (through their scavenging activity) or/and indirect antioxidants (e.g., by inducing Nrf2 binding to ARE) remains to be confirmed. Abbreviations: ARE: antioxidant response element; CAT: catalase; EGCG: epigallocatechin gallate; GCL: glutamate cysteine ligase; GPx: glutathione peroxidase; GR: glutathione reductase; GSS: glutathione synthetase; Keap1: Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1; LPO: lipid peroxidation; Nrf2: nuclear factor (erythroid-derived 2)-like 2; ROS: reactive oxygen species; SOD: superoxide dismutase; V⁵⁺: pentavalent vanadium; V⁴⁺: tetravalent vanadium; : inhibition; : stimulation.