Adjuvant Therapies in Diabetic Retinopathy as an Early Approach to Delay Its Progression: The Importance of Oxidative Stress and Inflammation

Figure 2

DR’s physiopathology and biomarkers for each intervention. Hyperglycemia induces a variety of biochemical responses derived in angiogenesis (as shown by VEGF and endothelial damage), apoptosis, and retinal dysfunction; here, we describe where each intervention acts in these complex pathways by inhibiting the shown biomarker. Abbreviations: VEGF: vascular endothelial growth factor; G3P: glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate; DAG: diacylglycerol; AGEs: advanced glycation end products; RAGE: receptor for advanced glycation end products; PKC: protein kinase C; NOX: NADPH (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate) oxidase; ROS: reactive oxygen species; SOD: superoxide dismutase; MnSOD: manganese superoxide dismutase; GPx: glutathione peroxidase; GR: glutathione reductase; ICAM-1: intercellular adhesion molecule-1; VCAM-1: vascular cell adhesion molecule-1; MCP-1: monocyte chemoattractant protein-1; TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor-alpha; IL-6: interleukin-6; IL-8: interleukin-8; IL-1β: interleukin-1β; PUFAs: polyunsaturated fatty acids; AIF-1: apoptosis-inducing factor-1; Bax: Bcl-2-associated X protein; LEAM: leukocyte-endothelium adhesion molecules; DASH: Dietary Pattern to Stop Hypertension.