Implication of Gut Microbiota in Cardiovascular Diseases

Table 2

Researches of gut microbiota in CVDs.

Diseases	Sample	Observations	Mechanism	Ref.
Hypertension	HTN patients	Decreased butyrate-producing bacteria and butyrate level	SCFA-dependent	[62]
	Ang-II pretreated mice	Reduced BP after butyrate administration; increased zonulin level	SCFA-dependent; gut barrier dysfunction	[65]
	Mice	Increased BP after propionate treatment	Olfr78-dependent	[66]
	Mice	Decreased BP after propionate treatment	Gpr41-dependent	[66]
		Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG prevents HTN development	Reduced TMAO levels	[70]
	Mice	High salt-induced HTN	Increased intestinal-derived corticosterone	[72]
Atherosclerosis	Patients	Bacterial DNA observed in atherosclerotic plagues	/	[73]
		Roseburia intestinalis ameliorates atherosclerosis	Alter gene expression, induce fatty acid metabolism, and reduce inflammation response	[77]
	apoE-/- mice	Comparable atherosclerosis lesion in germ-free apoE-/- animals and their conventionally raised counterparts	/	[75]
		Choline-enhanced atherosclerosis in aorta was off-set by antibiotics	Reduced macrophage and scavenger receptor CD36	[76]
	apoE-/- mice with HFD	Butyrate mitigates atherosclerotic plaque formation	Upregulation of ABCA1 and subsequent cholesterol efflux	[78]
Myocardial infarction	AMI rat model	Increased Synergistetes phylum, Lachnospiraceae family, Spirochaetes phylum, Syntrophomonadaceae family, and Tissierella and Soehngenia genera	In parallel with gut barrier impairment	[83]
	STEMI patients	Over 12% plasma bacteria originated from the gut	Partially associated with an inflammatory response	[84]
	Patients presenting with chest pain	Predictive value of plasma TMAO levels for incident cardiovascular events	TMAO-related proinflammatory monocytes augment	[85]
	Mice	Improve cardiac repair and post-MI outcome though modulation of immune composition	Gut microbiota-derived SCFAs modulate immune composition	[86]
		Lactobacillus plantarum 299v improved ischemia tolerance and acute cardiac injury after MI	Reduce leptin level	[87]
Heart failure	Mice	Bacteroides fragilis reduces ventricular remodelling	Increased Foxp3+ Treg cells and anti-inflammatory cytokine	[92]
		Depletion of SCFAs finally leads to HF	Intestinal barrier destruction, with endotoxin translocation	[93, 94]
	Mice	TMAO alters cardiac muscle cells contractility	Promotion of calcium ions release	[95, 96]
		TMAO confers detrimental effects on adult cardiomyocytes	T-tubule network damage; Ca handling dysfunction	[97]
	Mice	Pulmonary edema, cardiac enlargement, and decreased ejection fraction	TMAO-dependent	[98]
	Patients	TMAO increases susceptibility to HF	Induction of myocardial fibrosis	[99]
	Overload-induced HF mice	DMB ameliorates adverse cardiac structural remodelling	Downregulating TMAO levels	[100]
Arrhythmia	Patients	Shared common features of gut microbiota dysbiosis	Alike ratio of Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes	[104, 105]
	Patients	Thrombus formation; platelet hyperreactivity	Elevated TMAO level	[107]
		TMAO stimulates ischemia-induced VA	Release of proinflammatory markers such as IL-1β and TNF-α	[109]
	Canine AF model	Gut microbes counteracts AF progression	TMAO production and CANS activation	[110]
	Mice	Reduced susceptibility to cardiac ventricular arrhythmias	SCFA-dependent	[22]