Inflammation and Oxidative Stress in Multiple Sclerosis: Consequences for Therapy Development

Table 2

Overview of cytokines and other immune proteins that contribute to MS pathology.

Protein	Type	Effect	Role
Activin A	Cytokine	Anti-inflammatory	APC costimulation of T cell responses [71]
B7-1	APC membrane protein	Proinflammatory	APC costimulation of T cell responses [69]
B7-2	APC membrane protein	Proinflammatory	APC costimulation (inhibitory) of T cell responses [69]
CTLA4	Receptor	Anti-inflammatory	T cell produced cytokine, associated with increased pathology [22, 27, 36]
IFNγ	Cytokine	Proinflammatory/inflammation associated	Anti-inflammatory cytokine, produced by macrophages, Th2 cells, and regulatory T cells, promotes expression of immune-modulating Tregs [70]
IL-10	Cytokine	Anti-inflammatory	Produced by T cells, neutrophils, and other immune cells, associated with pathogenesis [22, 27, 36]
IL-17	Cytokine	Proinflammatory	Proinflammatory cytokine produced by activated macrophages/microglia [52, 64]
IL-1β	Cytokine	Proinflammatory	Produced during inflammation, proinflammatory and tissue protective functions, barrier maintenance [29]
IL-22	Cytokine	Proinflammatory	Produced by immune cells including T cells and type M2 microglia and macrophages; Pivotal role in shaping immune responses [70]
IL-4	Cytokine	Anti-inflammatory	Produced by proinflammatory macrophages, high levels in CSF associated with greater severity of MS [52]
iNOS	ROS-related enzyme	Proinflammatory	Multifunctional cytokine involved in immune regulation, inflammation, and repair; Produced by T cells and type M2 microglia and macrophages, some role in modulation of Th17 cell differentiation [70]
TGF-β	Cytokine	Anti-inflammatory	Multifunctional cytokine with proinflammatory and cytotoxic (soluble TNF) and beneficial (tmTNF) effects in the CNS [52]
TNF	Cytokine	Proinflammatory	APC costimulation of T cell responses [69]