Impairment of vascular reactivity and induction of vascular remodeling; induction of oxidative stress; stimulation of proinflammatory responses in vascular cells and macrophages; promotion of adhesion molecule expression; stimulation of the cross-talk between macrophages and endothelial cells promoting vascular wall infiltration by inflammatory cells [9–15]
Phosphate
Increase in contraction and decrease in endothelium-dependent relaxation of the vessels; increased production of ROS in VSMC and in endothelial cells via NADPH oxidase activation; induction of EMP shedding resulting in the impairment of endothelial cells with thrombotic, inflammatory, and antiangiogenic properties [16–19]
Klotho and FGF23
Arterial stiffness via a downregulation of SIRT1 expression in endothelial and smooth muscle cells; induction of an increase in oxidative stress, reduced NO production, induced the expression of cell adhesion molecules [20–23]
ADMA
Reduction of NO production; induction of oxidative stress and acceleration of the senescence of endothelial cells [24–27]
AGEs
Osteogenic-like differentiation of SMCs and subsequent calcification; promotion of inflammation and oxidative stress via activation of NADPH oxidase, upregulation of adhesion molecule expression; induction of vascular contraction by modulating ET-1 expression; induction of endothelial cell apoptosis and impairment of endothelial progenitor cell survival, differentiation, and function [28–32]
