Neuroprotective Phytochemicals in Experimental Ischemic Stroke: Mechanisms and Potential Clinical Applications

Figure 1

Dominant cell death mechanisms in ischemic stroke. Ionic imbalance and excitotoxicity, oxidative stress, and inflammation are major causes that lead to brain cell death in ischemic stroke. Ionic imbalance and excitotoxicity are developed within few minutes after ischemia and are the leading cause of cell death during the ischemic phase. Oxidative stress peaks at the beginning phase of reperfusion due to the sharply increased ROS production after oxygen restoration, while inflammation can last for several days or weeks after reperfusion contributing to the delayed cell death after ischemic stroke. Generally, these mechanisms can activate various cell death pathways such as necrosis, apoptosis, and autophagy/mitophagy directly or indirectly by promoting the dysfunction of organelles such as the mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum.