|
| Compounds | Mechanisms and targets | Ref. |
|
| Monoterpenoids (14) |
| Borneol | Antiapoptosis; anti-inflammation; neurovascular unit function↑ | [289, 290] |
| Carvacrol | Ferroptosis↓; antioxidation; GPx4↑; TRPM7↓; antiapoptosis: Bcl-2/Bax↑, PI3K/Akt↑; anti-inflammation: NF-κB↓ | [46, 291–293] |
| Catalpol | Angiogenesis↑; JAK2/STAT3↑; ATPase activity↑; excitatory amino acid toxicity↓ | [294, 295] |
| Cornin | Mitochondrial protection; antioxidation | [296] |
| Genipin | Antiapoptosis; UCP2/SIRT3↓ | [297] |
| Geniposide | Antiapoptosis; BBB protection; GluN2A/Akt/Erk↑ | [41] |
| Linalool | Phospholipid homeostasis↑ | [298] |
| β-Myrcene | Antioxidation: free radical scavenging | [299] |
| Paeoniflorin | Calcium modulation: Ca2+↓/CaMKII↑/CREB↑; anti-inflammation: MAPK/NF-κB↓; antiapoptosis | [300–302] |
| Perillaldehyde | Anti-inflammation: JNK↓; antiapoptosis: Akt↑ | [303] |
| Perillyl alcohol | Anti-inflammation; antioxidation | [304] |
| α-Pinene | Antioxidation; anti-inflammation | [305] |
| Picroside II | Antioxidation: Rac-1/NOX2↓; antiapoptosis: mPTP permeability↓; anti-inflammation: MEK/Erk1/2/COX-2↓; BBB protection: ROCK/MLCK/MMP-2↓/claudin-5↑ | [56, 79, 100, 306, 307] |
| Safranal | Antioxidation | [308] |
| Sesquiterpenoids (8) |
| Alantolactone | Anti-inflammation: MAPK/NF-κB↓ | [312] |
| Atractylenolide III | Anti-inflammation: mitochondrial fission in microglia↓, JAK2/STAT3/Drp-1↓ | [86] |
| Bakkenolide IIIa | Antioxidation; anti-inflammation: Erk↓, Akt/NF-κB↓ | [313] |
| Bilobalide | Mitochondrial protection: complex I function↑; antiexcitotoxicity; anti-inflammation: JNK1/2↓, p38 MAPK↓; antiautophagy; antiapoptosis; angiogenesis↑: Akt/eNOS↑ | [314–317] |
| (−)-α-Bisabolol | Anti-inflammation | [318] |
| Parthenolide | BBB permeability↓; caspase-1/p38/NF-κB↓ | [319] |
| Patchouli alcohol | Anti-inflammation | [320] |
| β-Caryophyllene | Anti-inflammation: microglial M2 polarization↑, TLR4↓ | [321] |
| Diterpenoids (11) |
| Andrographolide | Anti-inflammation: microglial activation↓, PI3K/Akt-NF-κB/HIF-1α↓, astrocyte activation↓, iNOS; BBB permeability↓; antioxidation: p38/Nrf2/HO-1↑, gp91phox/NOX2↓; BDNF/TrkB↑ | [57, 325–328] |
| Erinacine A | Anti-inflammation: iNOS, p38, and CHOP↓ | [329] |
| Ginkgolide B | Anti-inflammation: microglial M2 polarization↑, NF-κB↓; PAF receptor↓; antiapoptosis; antiexcitotoxicity: imbalance of excitatory and inhibitory amino acids↓; BBB permeability↓ | [38, 72, 330, 331] |
| Ginkgolide K | Antioxidation; neurogenesis: JAK2/STAT3↑ | [11, 332] |
| Pseudopterosin A | Antioxidation; anti-inflammation; antiapoptosis: Akt↑ | [333] |
| Salvinorin A | Mitochondrial function↑: AMPK/Mfn2↑, kappa opioid receptor↑ | [334] |
| Tanshinone I | Neuronal death↓; anti-inflammation | [335] |
| Tanshinone IIA | Antiapoptosis: PI3K/Akt↑; anti-inflammation: HMGB1/NF-κB↓, MIF/NF-κB↓, astrocyte activation, MAPKs↓, PPARγ↑; antioxidation; TORC1↑; BDNF/CREB↑ | [75, 336–343] |
| Totarol | Antioxidation: Akt/HO-1↑ | [344] |
| Triptolide | BBB permeability↓; anti-inflammation: p38/NF-κB↓; autophagy↑; antiapoptosis | [113, 345, 346] |
| (1S,2E,4R,6R,-7E,11E)-2,7,11-Cembratriene-4,6-diol | Antiapoptosis: PI3K/Akt↑; ICAM-1↓ | [347] |
| Triterpenoids (20) |
| Arjunolic acid | Antioxidation | [357] |
| Asiatic acid | Antiapoptosis and mitochondrial protection: cytochrome c and AIF release↓; MMP-9↓ | [358, 359] |
| Acetyl-11-keto-β-boswellic acid | Antioxidation: Nrf2/HO-1↑; anti-inflammation: 5-LOX, NF-κB↓ | [81, 360, 361] |
| 11-Keto-β-boswellic acid | Antioxidation: Nrf2/HO-1↑ | Ding et al. (2015) |
| 28-O-Caffeoyl betulin | Anti-inflammation; hypothermic effects | [362] |
| Celastrol | Anti-inflammation: microglial M2 polarization↑, IL-33/ST2↓, JNK/c-Jun/NF-κB↓ | [73, 363] |
| Echinocystic acid | Antiapoptosis; anti-inflammation: JNK↓ | [364] |
| 18β-Glycyrrhetinic acid | Antioxidation; antiapoptosis | [365] |
| Maslinic acid | Synaptogenesis↑: axonal regeneration↑, Akt/GSK-3β↑ | [366] |
| Ursolic acid | Anti-inflammation; antioxidation: Nrf2↑ | [367] |
| Madecassoside | Antioxidation; antiapoptosis; anti-inflammation | [368] |
| Astragaloside IV | Antiapoptosis: P62-LC3-autophagy↑; antioxidation: Nrf2↑; mitochondrial protection: Akt/hexokinase-II↑; anti-inflammation | [62, 114, 369, 370] |
| Glycyrrhizin | Anti-inflammation: HMGB1/TLR4/IL-17A↓; antioxidation; antiexcitotoxicity; antiapoptosis | [91, 371–373] |
| Diammonium glycyrrhizinate | Anti-inflammation | [374] |
| Ginsenoside Rb1 | BBB protection; anti-inflammation; antioxidation: NOX4-derived ROS production↓; abnormal microenvironment↓: glutamate toxicity↓, Ca2+ accumulation↓, GLT-1↑, NMDAR↓; autophagy↑; neurogenesis↑; BDNF↑; caspase-3↓ | [34, 55, 115, 375, 376] |
| Ginsenoside Rd | Anti-inflammation: microglial proteasome-mediated NF-κB activation↓, PARP-1↓; antioxidation: free radical scavenging; antiapoptosis; mitochondrial protection; energy restoration; Ca2+ modulation: TRPM7↓, ASIC1 a↓, ASIC2 a↑; DNA damage↓: NEIL1/3↑ | [49, 377–383] |
| Ginsenoside Rg1 | Anti-inflammation: microglial proteasome-mediated NF-κB activation↓; BDNF↑; excitatory amino acid↓; antioxidation: miR-144↓/Nrf2↑/ARE↑; angiogenesis↑: PI3K/Akt/mTOR↑; BBB permeability↓: aquaporin-4↓, PAR-1↓ | [384–389] |
| 20(R)-Ginsenoside Rg3 | Antiapoptosis: calpain I↓, caspase-3↓ | [390] |
| Pseudoginsenoside F11 | Antiapoptosis; autophagic/lysosomal defects↓; Ca2+ overload↓ | [391, 392] |
| Notoginsenoside R1 | Antiapoptosis; mitochondrial protection; estrogen receptor-Akt/Nrf2↑ | [393] |
| Tetraterpenoids (3) |
| Astaxanthin | Antioxidation; antiapoptosis; neurogenesis↑; neurotrophin expression: BDNF↑, NGF↑ | [120, 400, 401] |
| Fucoxanthin | Antioxidation: Nrf2/HO-1↑ | [402] |
| Lutein | Antiapoptosis; antioxidation; anti-inflammation | [403] |
|
