Old and New Biomarkers Associated with Endothelial Dysfunction in Chronic Hyperglycemia

Table 1

The table summarizes potential epigenetic and metabolomic biomarkers associated with endothelial dysfunction in chronic hyperglycemia.

Technology	Biomarkers and/or pathway	Source type	References
Epigenetics	HMT Set7 overexpression and NF-κB p65 activation	Human aortic endothelial cells (HAECs) exposed to high glucose and aortas of diabetic mice	[82]
	Hyperacetylation of histone H3K9/K14	Human aortic endothelial cells (HAECs) in high glucose or low glucose	[57]
	SIRT1 overexpression	Endothelial cells (ECs) and tissues from diabetic male C57BL/6 mice	[85, 86]
	Angiogenesis-associated miRNAs (angioMiRs), inflammation-associated miRNAs (inflammaMiRs), and senescence-associated miRNAs (seneMiRs)	Endothelial cells (ECs); human dermal microvascular endothelial cells (HMVECs); human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs); vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs)	[58, 87]
	miR-155	Endothelial cells (ECs); vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs); female Apoe–/– mice	[88, 89]
	miR-126	Plasma of sepsis patients and healthy controls; RAW264.7 macrophages; human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs); human promyelocytic cell line HL-60; endothelial cells derived from mouse embryonic stem (ES) cells; knockdown of miR-126 in zebrafish	[90–92]
	miR-146a	Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs)	[93]
	miR-200c	Endothelial cells (ECs); human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs); C2C12 myoblasts; primary normal human fibroblasts	[94, 95]
	IncRNAs	Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) cultured under high or normal glucose conditions	[97]
	IncRNA-MEG3	Retinas of STZ-induced diabetic mice; endothelial cells (ECs)	[98]
Metabolomics	Low plasma histidine, high butenoylcarnitine; Low hexose, glutamine, and tyrosine	Urine and plasma of T2D patients	[109]
	Alterations of carbonyl stress, carbohydrate metabolism, amino acid metabolism pathways, in particular vitamin B6, propanoate, and butanoate metabolism	Mouse aortic cells	[110]
	Alanine, proline, glycine, serine, and glutamine alterations	Human aortic endothelial cells (HAECs) exposed to acute and chronic hyperglycemia	[111]
	Glycosphingolipid pathway	Plasma of hyperglycemic mice and glucosamine-supplemented mice	[112]
	Gamma-glutamyl cycle impairment and increased methylglyoxal	Human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs)	[114]