Health effect Model/participants Bioactive compound MO1 Concentration tested Intervention time Effect tested/condition/bioactive compound concentration Effect compared to control Action mechanism Reference Anticarcinogenic In vitro : MTT assay of MCF7 human breast cancer cell lineKefiran - 500 to 4000 μ g/mL 48 h Cell viability - [46 ] 500 to 2000 μ g/mL ↓up to 45% 4000 μ g/mL Without effect 72 h 500 μ g/mL Without effect 1000 to 4000 μ g/mL ↓up to 15.6% In vitro : MTT assay of HT-29 human colon cancer cell lineExopolysaccharide MSR101 Lactobacillus kefiri MSR10150 to 400 μ g/mL 24 h Cell viability ↓up to 55.9% Upregulates the expression of apoptosis-related genes (Cyto-c, BAX, BAD, caspase 3, caspase 8, and caspase 9) in HT-29 cells [47 ] In vitro : MTT assay of HepG2 human hepatocellular carcinoma cell line and HeLa human cervical carcinoma cell lineKefiran Lactobacillus kefiranofaciens 15.6 to 1000 μ g/mL 24 h Cell viability ↓up to 72% Adversely affected the morphological characteristics of HeLa and HepG2 carcinoma cell lines [48 ] HepG2 cells 250 to 1000 μ g/mL ↓up to 82% Below 250 μ g/mL Without effect In vitro : fecal water-induced DNA damage assay in HT-29 human colon cancer cell lineLactic and acetic acids - 20 to 200 μ L/mL 30 min (preincubation) DNA damage Antioxidant activity [49 ] 200 μ L/mL ↓ 20% Below 200 μ L/mL Without effect In vitro : cell nuclei counting assay of MCF7-E3 human breast cancer estrogen-sensitive cellsBioactive peptides - 0.31 to 10% (v/v) 6 days Cell number ↓up to 88% - [15 ] Anti-inflammatory In vivo : DSS-induced acute colitis model in male wild-type C57BL/6 mice; chronic colitis model aggravated by Piroxicam in IL10-/- C57BL/6 miceExtracellular vesicles (PRCC-1301 EVs) Lactobacillus kefirgranum PRCC-13010.03 and 3 mg/kg bw/day Acute colitis: from 2 days before administration of DSS to 5 days Acute colitis Promoting the intestinal barrier integrity through the expression of occlusion proteins (ZO-1, claudin-1, and occludin) in colon epithelial cells and inhibition of the NF-κ B signaling pathway in the distal and proximal colon in an acute colitis model [50 ] Body weight ↑16% Colon length (3 mg/kg bw) ↑29.6% Histological score ↓up to 63% Chronic colitis: from 14th to 28th day (Piroxicam from day 0 to day 14) Chronic colitis Body weight Without effect Colon length (3 mg/kg bw) ↑14.3% Histological score ↓up to 85.3% In vitro : RAW264.7 cell line (murine macrophages)Exopolysaccharide R-17-EPS Lactobacillus pentosus LZ-R-1750 to 400 μ g/mL 24 h Macrophage cell viability ↑up to 38% - [51 ] Phagocytosis index ↑up to 44% Acid phosphatase activity ↑up to 78% NO production ↑up to 97.2% TNF-α 50 and 400 μ g/mL Without effect 100 to 200 μ g/mL ↑up to 10.2% IL-6 50 to 200 μ g/mL ↑up to 16.7% 400 μ g/mL ↓ 9.5% IL-1β 50 and 400 μ g/mL Without effect 100 to 200 μ g/mL ↑up to 14% IL-10 100 to 400 μ g/mL ↑up to 6.4% 50 μ g/mL ↓ 6.4% In vitro : DSS-induced acute colitis model in Caco-2 cell line cultures (human intestinal epithelial cells)Extracellular vesicles Lactobacillus kefirgranum PRCC-1301100 μ g/mL 6 h Cytokine gene expression: - Kang et al. (2020) [50 ] IL-2 ↓58.3% IL-8 ↓64.3% TNF-α ↓67% In vitro : RAW264.7 cell line (murine macrophages)Exopolysaccharide (R-5-EPS) Lactobacillus helveticus LZ-R-5 from Tibetan kefir50 to 400 μ g/mL 24 h Macrophage cell viability ↑up to 19% - [52 ] Phagocytosis index ↑up to 35.9% Acid phosphatase activity ↑up to 44% NO production ↑up to 44.4% TNF-α 50 μ g/mL Without effect 100 to 200 μ g/mL ↑up to 25.5% 400 μ g/mL ↓27.5% IL-6 ↑up to 54.3% IL-1β 100 and 200 μ g/mL ↑up to 20.5% 50 and 400 μ g/mL ↓up to 13.6% IL-10 50 to 200 μ g/mL ↑up to 18.2%; 400 μ g/mL Without effect In vitro : PBMC culture isolated from human total peripheral bloodKefiran - 1000 and 5000 μ g/mL 48 h IL-6 Control: not detected Treatment: - Jenab et al. (2020) [46 ] 1000 μ g/mL 220 ng/L 5000 μ g/mL 270 ng/L 500 to 4000 μ g/mL 24 h, 48 h, 72 h, and 96 h PBMC viability: 24 h 500 to 1000 μ g/mL Without effect 2000 to 4000 μ g/mL ↑up to 200% 48 h to 96 h Without effect In vitro : TNF-α -induced intestinal inflammation model in Caco-2 cell lineExtracellular vesicles (80 to 400 nm) Lactobacillus kefir , Lactobacillus kefiranofaciens , Lactobacillus kefirgranum 24 h IL-8 Reducing the phosphorylation of p65, a subunit of NF-κ B [53 ] mRNA level ↓up to 65.6% Secretion ↓up to 96.8% In vitro : a cell-free system containing sodium nitroprusside (10 mM)Kefiran - 5000 to 10.000 μ g/mL 2.5 h NO radical production ↓up to 40.91% Nitric oxide radical scavenging capacity of kefiran [54 ] In vitro : FliC-induced intestinal inflammation model in Caco-2 cell lineExopolysaccharide Lactobacillus paracasei CIDCA 8339, CIDCA 83123, and CIDCA 83124 strainsL. paracasei suspensions (1 h (preincubation) Promoter induction: CCL20 ↓up to 55% - [13 ] In vivo : TNBS-induced inflammatory bowel disease in Balb/c miceExtracellular vesicles Lactobacillus kefir , Lactobacillus kefiranofaciens , and Lactobacillus kefirgranum 10 days Body weight ↑up to 12.5% Blocking MPO activation in mouse serum Seo et al. (2018) [53 ] Rectal bleeding severity ↓up to 75% Diarrheal conditions ↓up to 91.4% Histopathological damage ↓up to 85% In vitro : cell-free systemPolysaccharide extract - 5000 μ g/mL 72 h Hyaluronidase inhibition ↓up to 35% - [55 ] In vitro : intestinal inflammation model in Caco-2 cell line induced by IL-1β , TNF-α , or FliCLactate - 100 mM 30 min (preincubation) Promoter inhibition CCL20 Inhibition of the NF-κ B signaling pathway [56 ] FliC-induced ↓78% IL-1β -induced ↓80% TNF-α -induced ↓42% In vitro : peritoneal macrophages isolated from six-week Balb/c female miceProtein ( Lactobacillus kefiranofaciens M15 μ L of kefir supernatant/mL 24 h Secretion - [57 ] TNF-α ↑1000% IL-1β ↑700% IL-6 ↑1300% IL-12 ↑3000% In vivo : Six- to 8-week-old BALB/c female miceKefiran Lactobacillus kefiranofaciens 100 mg/kg bw/day 2, 5, or 7 days Small intestine - [58 ] IgA IL-10 ↑up to 50% IL-6 ↑up to 22% IL-12 ↑up to 33% Fluid IL-4 ↑up to 164% IL-12 ↑up to 67.5% Large intestine IgA ↑up to 43% IgG ↑up to 41.7% IL-4 ↑up to 44.4% IL-10 ↑up to 47.2% IL-6 ↑up to 30% IFN ↑up to 21.2% TNF ↑up to 20% Serum: IL-4 ↑ up to 209% IL-6 ↑ up to 254% IL-10 ↑ up to 74.5% IFN ↑ up to 170% In vivo : cotton-induced granuloma in Wistar ratsKefiran - 1 mL kefir suspension/day 7 days Granuloma weight ↓44% - [16 ] [59 ] In vitro : Klebsiella pneumoniae (KP), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA), Bacillus cereus (BC), Staphylococcus aureus (SA), Staphylococcus epidermidis (SE), Escherichia coli (EC), clinical isolates Proteus mirabilis (PM), and Listeria monocytogenes (LM)Lactic acid Cow milk kefir: mesophilic aerobic bacteria, yeast, Lactobacillus , and Lactoccoccus Cow milk kefir: 0.90% (w/w) 24 h Microorganism growth - [60 ] BC ↓132.33% KP ↓72.05% SA ↓33.33% SE ↓31.89% LM ↓16.66% PA Without effect EC Without effect PM Without effect Donkey milk kefir: mesophilic aerobic bacteria, yeast, Lactobacillus , Lactoccoccus , and Leukonostoc Donkey milk kefir: 0.80% (w/w) Donkey milk kefir BC ↓183.33% KP ↓17.39% SA ↓4.34% SE ↓16.89% LM ↓58.33% PA Without effect EC ↓33.33% PM ↓58.33% In vitro : Escherichia coli (EC), Salmonella Typhimurium (ST), and Staphylococcus aureus (SA)Lactic, acetic, and pyruvic acids Acetobacter orientalis , Lactococcus lactis , Lactobacillus gallinarum , Kazachstania unispora , Pichia kudriavzevii , Galactomyces candidum , Geotrichum bryndzae , Lactobacillus kefiri , and Saccharomyces cerevisiae 25, 50, 75, and 100% (v/v) 48 h Microorganism growth - [14 ] EC ↓100% ST ↓100% SA ↓98.6% to 100% In vitro : Staphylococcus aureus (SA), Streptococcus faecalis (SF), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA), and Escherichia coli (EC)Kefiran - 1% (w/v) 24 h Zone of inhibition [61 ] EC ↓41.6% PA ↓51.3% SF ↓60.2% AS ↓61.6% Kefiran extracted by ultrasound EC ↓33.7% PA ↓43.0% SF ↓50.4% AS ↓51.4% Kefiran (hot water+ultrasound) EC ↓23.6% PA ↓32.8% SF ↓42.9% AS ↓43.4% In vitro : Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA) and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)FK-1000 (composed of sugars and amino acids) Lactobacilacea , Acetobacteraceae , Pseudomonadacea , Streptococcaceae , Leuconostocaceae , Enterobacteriaceae , Alphaproteobacteria , Aeromonadaceae , and Pseudomonadales 200 μ L/well of Muller Hinton 18 h Microorganism growth - [62 ] MRSA ↓100%, PA ↓100% pH 7 MRSA ↓83% PA Without effect In vitro : Pseudomonas putida extracted from spoiled chickenFraction with Lactobacillus paracasei FX-6 0.078%, 0.156%, 0.3125%, 0.625%, 1.25%, 2.5%, 5.0%, and 10% (w/v) 21 h Microorganism growthPseudomonas putida ↓13.5% to 98% Performance on the plasma membrane, DNA and proteins of pathogenic microorganisms [63 ] In vitro : Escherichia coli (EC), Lactobacillus plantarum (LP), Micrococcus luteus (ML), Listeria monocytogenes (LM), Salmonella enteritidis (SE), Staphylococcus aureus (AS), and Bacillus cereus (BC)Bacteriocin - 100, 150, 200, and 250 μ L/wells with a diameter of 7 mm 24 h Zone of inhibition - [40 ] LP ↑up to 15 times ML ↑up to 20 times BC ↑up to 7 times LM ↑up to 14 times SA ↑up to 8 times SE ↑up to 10 times EC Without effect In vitro : Escherichia coli (EC), Klebsiella pneumoniae (KP), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA), Enterococcus faecalis (EF), Bacillus cereus (BC), Bacillus subtilis (BS), and Staphylococcus aureus (SA)Bioactive peptides Lactobacillus , Lactococcus , and yeast2.5% (w/v) 24 h Antimicrobial activity - [64 ] SA ↑up to 100% EC ↑80% to 100% KP ↑up to 99.98% EF ↑94.5%to100% BS ↑up to 75.2%; PA ↑34.7% to 51% BC ↑up to 12.2% In vitro : Listeria monocytogenes (LM) and Salmonella enteritidis (SE)Exopolysaccharide DN1 Lactobacillus kefiranofaciens DN10.35, 1% and 2.5% (w/v) 24 h Microorganism growth 0.3% (w/v) - [65 ] LM ↓56% SE ↓5.45% 1% and 2.5% (w/v) LM ↓100% SE ↓100% In vitro : Escherichia coli (EC), Bacillus cereus (BC), and Salmonella enteritidis (SE)Lactic Acid - 25, 50, 75, and 100% (v/v) 24 h Microorganism growth - [66 ] EC ↓31% to 99% SE ↓up to 98.7% BC ↓up to 87% 25% (v/v) SE ↑6% BC ↑24% In vitro: methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) (S547) Biofilms Lactobacillus plantarum 106 CFU/mL 12, 24, 36, 48, 60, 72, and 84 h Microorganism growth ↓1.4% to 30% Inhibition of biofilm production by MRSA [67 ] In vitro : Escherichia coli (EC)F1 bioactive peptide Lactobacillus paracasei subsp.Tolerans FX-6 0.00625% (w/v) 20 h Microorganism growth ↓33% to 57% Damage to the outer and inner cell membrane with extravasation of potassium ions and cytoplasmic β -galactosidase; binding to the bacterial DNA [68 ] In vitro : Escherichia coli (EC), Klebsiella pneumoniae (KP), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA), Salmonella Typhymurium (ST), and Staphylococcus aureus (SA)Kefiran Lactobacillus kefiranofaciens 1% (w/v) 13 h Microorganism growth - [69 ] EC ↓up to 25.2% PA ↓up to 19% KP ↓up to 9.2% ST ↓up to 3.3% AS ↓up to 2% In situ (whey fermented with kefir grains): Aspergillus flavus (AFL), Penicillium crustosum (PC), Aspergillus terreus (AT), Aspergillus Fumigatus (AF), Trichoderma longibrachiatum (TL), Rhizopus sp. , and Aspergillus parasiticus (AP)Lactic and acetic acids - 95% (v/v) 24 h Microorganism germination - [70 ] Rhizopus sp.↓70% AP ↓67 TL ↓61% AF ↓60% AFL ↓34% PC Without effect AT Without effect In vitro : spent culture supernatant (SCS) obtained from Clostridium difficile - 1 h Biological activity of C. difficile SCS on Vero cellsLactococcus lactis subps. lactis or from a mixture of all microorganisms of kefir ↓80% - Supernatant from Lactobacillus kefir , Lb. plantarum , Saccharomyces cerevisiae , and Kluyveromyces marxianus Without effect In vitro : Streptococcus faecalis (SF), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA), Salmonella Typhi (STP), Bacillus subtilis (BS), Bacillus cereus (BC), Escherichia coli (EC), Klebsiella pneumoniae (KP), Staphylococcus aureus (SA), and Fusarium graminearum (FG)Aspergillus flavus AH3 (mycelial dry weights and aflatoxin B1)Kefiran - 0.1 mL/5 mm diameter paper 24 h for bacteria and yeasts and 7 days for fungi Zone of inhibition - [71 ] STP ↑75% SF ↑66.6% BC ↑62.5% PA ↑50% BS ↑44.4% EC ↑37.5% SA ↑16.6% FG ↑15.4% KP ↑9.09% Aflatoxin B1 ↓33.3% to 100% Mycelial dry weights ↓14.9% to 100% In vitro : Salmonella Typhimurium (ST), Escherichia coli (EC), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA), and Staphylococcus aureus (SA)Lactic acid (partial effect) - 0.9% (w/w) 24 h Zone of inhibition - [17 ] – Industrial kefir ST ↓60% SA ↓56.6% EC ↓56.5% PA Without effect 48 h ST ↓41.4% SA ↓42.1% EC Without effect PA Without effect 7 days ST ↓1.67% SA Without effect EC Without effect PA Without effect In vitro : Salmonella enteritidis (SE)S-layer proteins Lactobacillus kefir strains CIDCA 8344 and CIDCA 83484 h Microorganism growthL. kefir 8348 - [72 ] Salmonella enteritidis↓up to 99.96% S-layer proteins from L. kefir 8344 Salmonella enteritidis↓50% to 99.93% In situ (kefir-fermented milk): spores and vegetative cells de Bacillus cereus and toxin production by B. cereus Organic acids - 1% and 5% (w/v) 24 h 1% (w/v) Reduction of the biological activity of the pathogenic microorganism [31 ] Vegetative cells ↓70% to 98% Number of spores ↓up to 80 times 5% (w/v) Vegetative cells ↓70% to 99.8% Number of spores ↓from 80 to 50,000 times Antioxidant In vitro : 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl—DPPH; reduce Fe3+ to Fe2+ (FRAP)Kefiran - 0.08%, 0.04%, 0.02%, 0.01%, and 0.005% (w/v) 30 min DPPH ↓25 to 85% - [61 ] FRAP ↓37 to 84% In situ (cow milk kefir): 2,2Bioactive peptides - - - ABTS ↑35.8% The antioxidant effect cannot be attributed to the ion chelating ability [14 ] 20 μ L/well (v/v) 80 min ORAC ↑111.6% In vitro : ascorbic acid equivalent reducing capacity (AAEC)Kefiran - 1% and 0.5% (w/v) 20 min Ascorbic acid equivalent reducing capacity Control (hyaluronic acid) Metal chelating activity and sequestering activity of hydroxyl and superoxide radical [54 ] 0.5% (w/v) 4.44 μ g/mL 1% (w/v) 8.47 μ g/mL In situ (cow and ewe milk kefirs) 2,23+ to Fe2+ (FRAP)Total phenolic compounds - 5% (v/v) 3 min Ewe milk kefir - [73 , 74 ] – Industrial kefir ABTS ↓4.6% to 46% DPPH ↓20% to 50% FRAP ↑24% to 134% Cow milk kefir ABTS ↓52% to 70% DPPH ↑70% to 220% FRAP ↑13% to 120% In vitro Bioactive peptides - 0.625% (w/v) 6, 30, 60, 90, 150, and 180 min ABTS ↑2% to 25.6% - [64 ] 2.5%, 1.25%, 0.62, and 0.31% (w/v) 120 min DPPH 2.5% peptides ↓2.64% to 17.7% 7 days ↑2.99% 14 days ↓0.3% to 6.32% 0.62% peptides 7 days ↓1.15% to 11.03% From 14 days ↑13.22% to 18.85% 0.31% peptides ↓17.0% to 30.0% In vitro: 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl—DPPH Exopolysaccharides Bacillus amyloliquefaciens , Uncultured Bacillus sp. clone , Bacillus subtilis , Bacillus subtilis , Bacillus tequilensis , and ↓Bacillus siamensis 1 mL (109 CFU/mL)/3 mL 30 min Antioxidant activity ↑10% to 20% Resistance to hydrogen peroxide [73 ] In vitro : 2,20-azobis(2-methypropionamidine) dihydrochloride)—APPH—in bovine serum albumin (BSA)Exopolysaccharides Acetobacter okinawensis , Leuconostoc pseudomesenteroides , and Kazachstania unispora 0.05%, 0.1%, 0.15%, 0.20%, and 0.25% (w/v) 360 min AAPH-oxidized BSA protein ↓31% to 96% - [28 ] In situ (cow milk kefir): 2,2Exopolysaccharides - 0.00113% (w/v) 6 min Antioxidant activity ↑8.43% - [74 ] In situ (goat milk kefir): 2,2Phenolic compounds - 38.93, 61.60, 26.62, and 123.23% (w/v) - ABTS ↑62% to 120% - [75 ] ORAC ↑10% to 40% Cholesterol In-vitro : exopolysaccharides (EPSs) in DMEM medium containing 3T3-L1 adipocytesExopolysaccharides Lactobacillus kefiri (LKDH1, LKDH3, and LKDH5 strains) and Leuconostoc mesenteroides (LMDH4, LMDH6, LMDH7, LMDH8, and LMDH9 strains)0.01 mg/mL, 0.1 mg/mL, and 0.2 mg/mL of exopolysaccharides isolated from their producer microorganisms 6 days Lipid accumulation in adipocytes - [76 ] 0.01 mg/dL LMDH4 ↓12% Other strains Without effect 0.1 mg/dL LMDH4 ↓22% LMDH7 ↓24% LKDH5 ↓14% Other strains Without effect 0.2 mg/dL LMDH7 ↓28% LDMH4 ↓22% LKDH3 ↓22% LKDH5 ↓19% LMDH6 ↓10% Other strains Without effect In vivo : C57BL/6J high-fat and high-fructose diet-induced obese mice and with oral administration of heat-killed lactic acid bacteria (HLAB) from kefirExopolysaccharides Leuconostoc mesenteroides LMDH4 and Lactobacillus kefiri LKDH510 mL/kg bw of a mixture Leuconostoc mesenteroides LMDH4 (Lactobacillus kefiri LKDH5 ( 8 weeks Total cholesterol Without effect Reduction in the proinflammatory genes expression (Hp and Wfdc21 ) and genes (Fabp4 and Fasn ) related to the synthesis of fatty acids in the adipose tissues [76 ] HDL Without effect LDL Without effect Triglyceride Without effect Adipose tissue weight ↓36% In vitro : Lactococcus lactis WH-C1 from kefir in GM17 broth supplemented with cholesterol (30 mg/100 mL)Exopolysaccharides Lactococcus lactis WH-C14% (v/v) inoculum Lactococcus lactis WH-C1 from Tibet kefir grains 24 h Cholesterol in the medium ↓up to 31.23% - [77 ] Blood pressure In situ (cow milk kefir): assay of inhibitory activity on angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)Bioactive peptides - 11.2 mg/100 mL 24 h ACE activity ↓98.4% - [14 ] Glucose In vivo : C57BL/6J high-fat and high-fructose diet-induced obese mice and with oral administration of heat-killed lactic acid bacteria (HLAB) from kefirExopolysaccharides Leuconostoc mesenteroides LMDH4 and Lactobacillus kefiri LKDH510 mL/kg bw of a mixture Leuconostoc mesenteroides LMDH4 (Lactobacillus kefiri LKDH5 ( 8 weeks Plasma glucose Without effect - [76 ] In vivo : Streptozotocin-nicotinamide- (STZ-NA-) induced diabetic rats/male rats of 8-12 weeks oldAlcohol and phenolic compounds - 5 to 20 mL kefir with black rice extract (1 : 1)/kg bw 4 weeks Number of Langerhans islet ↑up to 199% Proton-radical scavenging activity [78 ] Insulin-positive β -cells ↑up to 2330% Intestinal microbiota modulation In vitro : fecal samples from healthy children aged between 8 months and 3 years oldExopolysaccharides 8339 and 83124 L. paracasei CIDCA 8339 and CIDCA 831240.3% (w/v) 72 h L. paracasei CIDCA 8339- [79 ] Lentisphaerae ↑32% Firmicutes ↑12% Victivallis ↑33% Acidaminococcu ↑15% Comamonas ↑ 6%Proteobacteria ↓31% Bacteroidetes ↓11% Actinobacteria ↓1.5% L. paracasei CIDCA 83124Proteobacteria ↑15% Comamonas ↑52% Firmicutes ↓17% Bacteroidetes ↓10% Actinobacteria ↓1.3% Escherichia ↓28% Bacteroides ↓11% to 12% Klebsiella ↓6% In vivo : thirty 16-week-old female C57BL/6J ovariectomized miceBioactive peptides - 100 mg of bioactive peptides/kg bw 56 days Firmicutes /Bacteroidetes ↑17% - [80 ] Alloprevotella ↑326% Romboustsia ↓85% Anaerostipes ↓66% Ruminococcus ↓55% Parasutterella ↓46% Streptococcus ↓39% In vivo : male Balb/c mice aged 16 weeksExopolysaccharide Lactobacillus kefiranofaciens XL100.4 mL of an XL10 suspension (108 CFU/mL) 21 days Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ↑0.04% to 1.8% - [81 ] Lactobacillaceae ↑14.59% Ruminococcaceae (day 7)↑15.12% Bifidobacteriaceae ↑0.2% to 0.59% Rikenellaceae ↓2.63% to 2.74% Abundance in the gender ↓ up to 39.19% BALB/c female mice (6 to 8 weeks old) Kefiran - Daily intake 0.75 to 1 mg kefiran per day 21 days Bifidobacteria ↑ up to 17% - [82 ] In vitro : Bifidobacterium bifidum PRL2010Kefiran - 0.3% (w/v) 72 h Bifidobacterium bifidum PRL2010Control (MRSc without carbon source) Enhanced transcription of genes that act as effector molecules in the microbe-host interaction, such as pili; transcription of genes involved in the metabolism of diet glucans [41 ] Nervous system In vitro : MTT assay of PC12 cell line (from rat adrenal gland -phaeochromocytoma)Kefiran - 5 and 10% 1 to 6 days Cell viability - [46 ] 1 day ↓up to 26.7% 2 days Without effect 4 days (10%) ↓15.4% 6 days (10%) ↓21.2% In vivo : aging mouse model induced with D-galactose (oxidative stress)Exopolysaccharide Lactobacillus plantarum YW11Low dose: 20 mL/kg bw/day of 1 mg/mL EPS solution 12 weeks Low dose Modulation of gut microbiota and reduction of oxidative stress of the intestinal tract (decrease of NOx fecal content and increase of content of short-chain fatty acids—acetic and butyric) [83 ] T-AOC ↑27.7% MDA Without effect GSH-Px Without effect SOD Without effect CAT Without effect High dose T-AOC ↑38.18% MDA ↓49.6% GSH-Px ↑21.55% SOD ↑33.14% CAT ↑61.09% Osteoporosis In vivo : thirty 16-week-old female C57BL/6J ovariectomized miceBioactive peptides (KPS) - 100 mg of KPs/kg bw 56 days Trabecular bone volume ↑264% - [80 ] Trabecular number ↑235% Bone mineral density ↑41% Mechanical properties ↑42% Hardness of the bones ↑36% Trabecular separation areas ↓36.5% Nanoindentation areas ↓33%
