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Target pathway | Treatment goal | Clinically applied antioxidants | Experimental antioxidants | Mechanism | References |
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Nrf2/ARE | Reduce oxidative damage of melanocytes | Simvastatin, aspirin, Ginkgo biloba extract (EGb761), afamelanotide | Berberine, cinnamaldehyde, baicalein, ginsenoside Rk1, dimethyl fumarate | Upregulation of antioxidant gene expression | [33–52] |
PI3K/AKT | Reduce oxidative damage of melanocytes | 8-Methoxypsoralen, chalcones, mesenchymal stem cells, basic fibroblast growth factor | Quercetin, geniposide | Regulate melanocyte proliferation, differentiation, and metabolism | [59–66] |
Wnt/β-catenin | Stimulation of repigmentation | Vitamin D | Wnt receptor inducer (SKL2001), H2, adipose tissue extracellular fraction (AT-Ex) | Stimulation of melanocyte stem cell proliferation, differentiation, and migration | [79–85] |
AhR | Reduce oxidative damage of melanocytes | — | Tapinarof, isopsoralen, norisoboldine, cinnamaldehyde | Repairing mitochondrial oxidative damage by regulating mitochondrial biosynthesis | [38, 91–93] |
p38 MAPK | Reduce oxidative damage of melanocytes | Minocycline, Kursi Karwiya or caraway tablet, 1,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid, glutathione | Hyperacetylated epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), 2,3,4,4-tetrahydrochalcone (RY3-a), flumequine, maclurin, psoralen derivative-MPFC, baicalein, cynarine, apigenin, methyl 3,5-di-caffeoylquinate | Melanogenesis and antioxidant activity | [96–110] |
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