|
| Stage | NPs diameter | Treatment duration | Tested concentrations | General toxicity response | Specific ROS responses | Reference |
|
| Embryos | 30 nm | 48 h | Up to 10 mg/L | No toxic effects. | — | [35] |
| Embryos | ≤20 nm | 96 h | 1, 10, 50, 100, and 500 mg/L | No significant differences in survival, hatching, and malformation rates. | — | [34] |
| Embryos | 27.7 nm | 120 hpf | 0.1, 0.5, 1, 5, and 10 mg/L | No significant differences in survival and hatching rates; reduction in average swimming speed at 120 hpf at low concentration; and no changes after the coexposure with NAC or BSO. | — | [37] |
| Embryos | 86 and 409 nm | 96 hpf | 170 ng/mL+40 μg/mL hydroxylated fullerenes/C60(OH) 24) | — | Downregulation of genes associated with circadian rhythm, transport and vesicular trafficking, and immune response. | [48] |
| Embryos | 23.3 nm | 120 hpf | 1, 10, 100, 500, and 1000 μg/mL | LC50 = 300 μg/mL with no light; LC50<1000 μg/mL with light; at 8 days all illuminated larvae died at 100 μg/mL; and different malformations (head, tail, yolk, and heart). | ROS generation in presence of light; oxidative stress response in transgenic line; and DNA damage with TiO2 NPs ≤1000 μg/mL under illumination. | [45] |
| Embryos | 5, 10, and 21 nm | Over 23 days | 0.01-10 000 ng/mL | Significant mortality rate (speed up with light); reduction in size, deformations of craniofacial structures and absence or abnormal organization in the pigmentation; and swim bladder with a single lobe. | Significant oxidative stress and intracellular damages. | [46] |
| Embryos | 4, 10, 30, 50, and 134 nm | 48 h | 50, 500, 5000, 25000, and 50000 μg/L | No effects on zebrafish with 4 and 30 nm NPs; low impact on the mortality rate at 5000 and 250000 μg/L with 10 nm and 134 nm NPs. | No necrotic cells or a low amount of them for all the different size and doses tested; normal expression of Mt2. | [59] |
| Embryos | 21 nm | 72 hpf | 1 mg/L | No effects on mortality rate; no significant incidence of malformations; expression of atho7 in the retina similar to controls; all the components of the retina well differentiated; and no effects on the neurogenesis. | — | [51] |
| Embryos | 7.04 nm | 7 dpf | 0.1 mg/L+BDE (0.08 and 0.38 mg/L) | Similar survival and hatching rates of the sample treated with BDE or BDE plus NPs; important increase in T4 values in cotreated samples; no difference in T3; important upregulation in the expression of the tg, tshβ, and dio2 genes; downregulations of α1-tubulin and mbd genes; perturbations in the expression of the mbd protein; and reduction in the swimming speed. | — | [50] |
| Embryos | ≤25 nm | 96 hpf | 10 and 50 mg/L +5 and 10 mg/L of BPA | TiO2 NPs: normal survival rate; no important malformations; and decreased hatching rate at the highest dose tested
TiO2 NPs+BPA: significant decrease dose-dependent of survival rate, different abnormalities (spine deformation, weak pigmentation, and pericardial edema). | — | [52] |
| Embryos | NM-103/104: 20 nm; P25: 21 nm; and micro-TiO2: 200 nm | 8 dpf | 0.01, 0.1, and 1 mg/mL | No effects on survival, hatching, or deformities rates; decrease in the length of larvae at one dose of microsized TiO2.. | Decrease in SOD activity; perturbation in GSH levels; and highest levels of ROS in embryos treated with P25 NPs. | [54] |
| Embryos | 25 nm | 6 dpf | 0.1 mg/L+PCP (3, 10, and 30 μg/L) | Similar survival and hatching rates in samples treated with PCP and PCP plus nanoparticles; incidence of malformations higher in coexposed larvae. | Alterations in GSH content, SOD activity and MDA in sample treated with only NPs; decrease in the SOD activity and GSH content and important levels of MDA and ROS in cotreated samples; and an important upregulation sod1 and nrf2 in cotreated samples. | [49] |
| Embryos | 6, 12, and 15 nm | 120 hpf | 0–1000 μg/mL | LC50 6 nm: 23 μg/mL; LC50 for 12 nm: 610 μg/mL
LC50 for 15 nm: not detectable; several phenotypic abnormalities (opaque yolk, axial curvatures, craniofacial defects, yolk sac, and pericardial edema). | High levels of hydroxyl radical (˙OH) and ROS; higher values for 6 nm NPs in comparison to 12 and 15 nm NPs. | [47] |
| Embryos | Anatase, TA <25 nm; anatase/rutile mixture, TM, form, 25 nm | 96 h | 1, 10, and 100 mg/L | 5% of mortality only after 96 hpf in the group treated with 100 mg/L of TA under UV light; lower hatching rate in zebrafish treated with TA and under UV illuminations; egg coagulation and perturbations in equilibrium in zebrafish treated with TM; and significant decrease of survival and hatching rates under UV light. | Under UV illumination decrease in the enzymatic activity of AP, GST, and CAT; state of oxidative stress. | [68] |
| Embryos | 7.02 nm | 6 dpf | 0.1 mg/L+Pb (0, 5, 10, 20, and 30 μg/mL) | Effects on organogenesis in coexposed larvae; decrease in T3 and T4 levels in zebrafish treated with 30 μg/mL of Pb alone or to all the doses of Pb plus TiO2 NPs; downregulation of tg and TTR shha, gfap, α-tubulin, and mbp genes; upregulation in tsβ gene; and significant decreased in the swimming speed. | — | [61] |
| Embryos | 50-70 nm | 96 hpf | 0.1, 1, and 10 μg mL | No alteration in survival rate; decrease in hatching rate; significant incidence of abnormalities (tail flexure and pericardial edema); decrease in total distance of swimming; and TiO2 NPs able to cross the BBB, localized in the larvae brain. | High ROS production with consequent oxidative stress; high apoptosis in the hypothalamus region; upregulations of the genes α-syn, parkin, uchl1, and pink1; and decrease in the dopaminergic neurons. | [60] |
| Embryos | Bulk TiO2: ∼110 nm; 5 h TiO2 NPs: 85 nm; 10 h TiO2 NPs: 62 nm; 15 h TiO2 NPs: 46 | 96 h | 10-250 μg/mL | Significant decreased or increased, respectively, in a dose-dependent manner of survival rates and hatching rates; strongest effect for embryos/larvae treated with TiO2 NPs milled for the longer time (15 h). | ROS quenching; steatosis, lipid accumulation in dose-dependent manner in different areas of the animal (tail, head, and notochord); high number of apoptotic cells in tail and head; perturbation of sod1 protein activity; and perturbation of protein tp53. | [56] |
| Adults | <150 nm | 5 days | 1, 2, and 4 mg/L | Structural changes and degeneration of the follicles. | Several vacuolizations in the cytoplasm; evident forms of paraptosis; mitochondrial vesiculation and chromatin condensation; and swelling and mitotic catastrophe. | [69] |
| Embryos | 5–25 nm | 72 hpf | 500 and 1000 mg/L | No changes in the survival rate for all the treated samples. | Perturbation of SOD2 mRNA level both under illumination and in dark condition; normal level of Pxmp2; and significant difference in IF1 mRNA level under illumination. | [65] |
| Embryos | 20 and 30 nm | 96 h | 1, 10, 50, and 100 μg/mL+10 μg/mL | TiO2 NPs: survival rate of 85%: TiO2 NPs+HA: 95%. HA decrease harmful effects of TiO2 NPs. | — | [53] |
| Embryos | 40 nm | 96 h | 10, 25, 50, 100, 250, and 500 μg/L | LC50 = 90 μg/mL; enhancement of hatching rate of embryos; and some abnormalities (both body and organs). | Lower ROS production for the TiO2 NPs produced by HEBM method, compared to the bulk one. | [56] |
| Embryos | 1-3 nm | | 10, 100, and 1000 mg/L | 100% mortality at the highest concentrations; delay in hatching rate at the middle and highest doses tested; several malformations (aneurysm and pericardial edema) in embryos injected with TiO2 USNPs; any perturbations or vascular toxicity in the ones injected in the circulatory systems at 48 hpf; length reduction of the ISVs in eggs treated by soaking or injection with 100 mg/L of TiO2 USNPs; and perturbation in Myo1c expression. | — | [58] |
| Embryos | 21 nm | 34, 58, 82, 106, and 130 h | 0.01, 10, and 1000 mg/mL | 73% of embryos exposed to highest dose hatched prematurely between 34 and 58 hours post exposure. | — | [57] |
| Embryos | 5 nm | 2 days | 100 μg/L) TiO2 NPs+Pb (0, 10, 20, and 40 μg/L); a subsequent depuration (144 h) | Survival and hatching rates up to 85% for all the investigated cases; significant perturbation in these biological parameters observed only in at 40 μg/L Pb plus TiO2 NPs; and reduction in the larvae swimming speed. | — | [62] |
| Embryos | Micro-TiO2 1–2 μm
Nano-TiO2 21 nm | 6 dpf | 0.01, 0.1, and 1.0 mg/L nano-TiO2 and 1.0 mg/L micro-TiO2 | No effects on survival and hatching rates; body weight and length of larvae decreased as well as rotation times and the swimming speed; perturbation in the neurogenesis and in the motor neuron axon length; and perturbation in the expression of genes α1-tubulin, mbp, and gap43. | — | [63] |
| Adults | 20.5 | 48 h | 1000 μg/L | No significant alterations in gill histopathology; important changes in the expression of 171 genes (111 genes downregulated and 60 upregulated). | — | [36] |
| Adults | 21 nm | 14 days | 0.1 or 1.0 mg/L | No behavioral abnormalities and no mortality; changes in the number of white blood cells at the last day of exposure (14) for all the tested doses of TiO2 NPs. | Normal Na+K+-ATPase activities in the liver, gill, and brain; values of GSH in the liver, gill, and brain higher in comparison to controls; histology of all these tissues normal; and absence of intracellular oxidative damage. | [67] |
| Adults | 9.7 nm | 90 days | 100 μg/L+0, 2 and 20 μg/L BPA | Change in the intestinal microbial community after cotreatment of TiO2 NPs and BPA. | Oxidative stress and inflammation dose-dependent and sex-dependent; oxidative responses due to the cotreatment linked to a different amount of Lawsonia and Hyphomicrobium. | [72] |
| Adults | <150 nm | 5 days | 1, 2, and 4 mg/L | Swelling and loss of cristae and degenerated mitochondria in spermatocytes and Sertoli cells; high amount of necrotic cells; and damages in the testicular morphology and negative impact on the fertility. | — | [70] |
| Adults | 23.8 nm | 5, 7, 14, 21, and 28 days | 1 and 10 μg/L | — | Significant percentage of DNA fragmentation with maximum injuries after 14 days; significant number of apoptotic cells; and important decrease of genome stability (GTS%) at 14 days, and then recovered in part at 28 days. | [71] |
| Adults | 240–360 nm | 91 days | 0.1, 1.0 mg/L | After 9 weeks, decreased number of embryos; increase in mortality rate at 2 dpf of embryos produced by the exposed female; perturbation in the follicular stages, with a block in the development; and important alteration of genes involved in the development of oocytes. | — | [66] |
| Embryos and adults | 25 nm | Embryos: 96 hpf
Adults: 7 days | Embryos: 10, 50, and 100 mg/L
Adults: 10, 50, and 100 mg/L | — | Embryos: no effects on hatching rate, no sign of deformity.
Adults: significant decrease of activities of GSTs, CAT, and SOD in the gills and liver; oxidative stress condition. | [64] |
| Adults | 21 nm | 21 days, | 5 and 40 mg/L | Increase of both bacteria (gut) in the water and animal motility; Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, and Proteobacteria main component of the flora of the gut. | — | [73] |
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