| | Stage | NP diameter | Treatment time | Tested concentrations | General toxicity response | Specific ROS responses | Reference |
| | Embryos | 22 nm | 144 h | 0.3; 0.6; 1.25; 2.5; 5; and 10 mg/L | High mortality rate; cardiotoxicity (reduction of heart beat rate); and morphological alterations. | — | [3] | | Embryos | 6-12 nm | 120 hpf | SP IONs, S PION-DX, SP ION-CS, SP ION-T, SPI ON-T-PEG, SP ION@SiO2: 0.125 mM, 0.5 mM, 2.0 mM, and 8.0 mM | SP ION-CS: reduced survival rate, SPI ON-CS, and SP ION@SiO2 delay in hatching rate; SP ION-DX, SP ION-T-PEG and SP ION-T: slightly premature hatching; SP ION-CS and SPI ON@SiO2: reduction in locomotor activity; and SP ION-CS, SP ION-T-PEG SP ION@SiO2 reduction in escape behavior. | — | [15] | | Embryos | | 168 hpf | 0.1, 0.5, 1, 5, 10, 50, and 100 mg/L | Mortality concentration and exposure time dependent; LC50 = 53.35 mg/L; delay in hatching rate, LC50 = 36.06 mg/L; and different malformations (pericardial edema, tissue ulceration, and body arcuation). | — | ]76] | | Embryos | 40 nm | 96 h | Fe3O4 NPs: 100-800 μg/mL bare
Cr@Fe3O4: 5, 150, 300, and 600 mg/mL | Fe3O4 NPs: dose- and time-dependent delay in hatching rate; slight decrease in embryo viability; Cr@Fe3O4: NPs high mortality in 2-week-old larvae; dose-dependent accumulation in digestive tract. | — | [93] | | Embryos | 100-250 nm | 168 hpf | 1, 5, 10, 50, and 100 mg/L | LC50 = 10 mg/L; delay in the hatching rate. | — | [97] | | Embryos | 22-45 nm | 96 hpf | 10, 20, 40, 60, 80, 110, 120, and 140 ppm | LC50 =60.17 ppm; delay in hatching rate; reduction in heart beat rate; and increased teratogenicity. | Dose-dependent decrease of Na+K+-ATPase activity; dose-dependent increase of AChE; increased levels of lipid peroxidation ROS, PC, and NO; increase of apoptotic bodies; and decrease of antioxidant enzymes, CAT, SOD, and Gpx. | [98] | | Embryos/adults | 15 nm | Embryos: 96 hpf
Adults: 2 weeks | Embryos: 1, 10, 100, and 1000 ppm
Adults: 1, 10 ppm | Embryos: no adverse effect observed
Adults: reduced locomotor and exploration activity, increased anxiety, reduced social interaction, tightened shoaling behavior; dysregulation of circadian rhythm locomotor activity, reduction of short-term memory retention, and reduction of serotonin and dopamine. | Increased CAT, cortisol level in the brain; reduction of AChE activity. | [92] | | Adults | 21 nm | 7 days | 100 mg/L | Bare IO NPs accumulate mainly in the gills, coated IO NPs in the liver. | Altered expression of genes involved in inflammation, immune response, oxidative stress, antioxidant response, and mitochondria in the gills of Fe3O4-treated fish. Upregulation in the liver of genes involved in immune and inflammation responses, and downregulation of genes involved in DNA damage and repair in both exposures; different expression of genes involved in DNA damage/repair and apoptosis (tp53) for starch-coated NPs; upregulation of cyp1a; and dysregulation of genes involved in the mitochondrial dysfunction pathway. | [111] | | Adults | Fe2O3: 80-90 nm
Fe3O4: 140-160 nm | 28 days | 4 and 10 mg/L | Shift in coloration, extravasated blood, and chronic toxicity in the gut. | — | [95] | | Adults | 23 nm | 48 h | 20, 50, 100. 140, and 200 mg/kg | Reduction of AChE activity; impaired swimming. | Increased expression of transcriptional jun, caspase-8, caspase-9, gclc, Gpx1a, CAT, gstp1, and sod2. | [110] |
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