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| Stage | NPs diameter | Treatment time | Tested concentrations | General toxicity response | Specific ROS responses | Reference |
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| Embryos | 20 nm | 96 h | 0.1, 0.5, 1, 5, 10, and 50 mg/L | Significant decrease of survival rate; delay in hatching rate dose-dependent; 96 h LC50 = 1.793 mg/L; and several abnormalities (body accusation and pericardial edema). | — | [34] |
| Embryos | 20 nm | 96 hpf | 0.1, 0.5, 1, 5, 10, 50, and 100 mg/L | Decrease of survival rate; delay in hatching rate; and incidence of pericardial edema dose-dependent. | Increase in ROS production; low levels of Gstp2 and Nqo1 expressions; and downfall in counteracting the ROS by oxidative stress responses. | [138] |
| Embryos | <100 nm | 144 hpf | 1, 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 mg/L | No effect bin the survival rate; important decrease in the hatching rate; and different malformations (spinal curvature and hyperemia). | Important elevation in the SOD activity and MDA levels in a dose-dependent way; decrease in CAT activity; high levels of ROS; DNA damage only at the highest concentration tested; and important downregulation in Bcl-2, Nqo1, and Gstp2 transcriptions and upregulation in Ucp-2 level. | [18] |
| Embryos | 30 nm | 96 hpf | 1, 5, 10, 25, 50, and 100 mg/L | Decrease in survival rate and increase in hatching rate dose-dependent; severe decrease in body length. | — | [18] |
| Embryos | <100 nm | 96 hpf | 1, 5, 10, 20, 50, and 100 mg/L | — | Increase in the lipid peroxidation and SOD activity; upregulation in the expression of the ppaα and sod1; downregulation of cat; altered expression of antiapoptotic genes (bcl-2) and proapoptotic (bax, puma, and apaf-1; upregulation of p53 gene, with overexpression of its protein; and increase in the activity of caspase-3 and caspase-9. | [116] |
| Embryos | 9.4 nm | 96 hpf | 0.2, 1, and 5 mg/L/ | Dramatic delay in hatching. | Upregulation of the cat and Cu/Zn-sod transcripts in embryos and downregulation in eleuthero; important upregulation of Mt2<; different expression of mRNA of IL-1β, TNFα, and proinflammatory cytokines in eleuthero-embryos in comparison to embryos; alteration in the jun proto-oncogene (c-jun) embryos treated with high concentration; and perturbation in antiviral and immune-related gene Myxovirus resistance A. | [131] |
| Embryos | 50–70 nm | 144 hpf | 0.1, 0.5, 1, 5, and 10 mg/L | Significant delay in hatching for ZnO NPs and Zn ions; no significant difference in cotreatment with ZnO NPs and NAC; and increased rates of delay in hatching in cotreatment with BSO. | ROS generation; cotreatment with BSO: lower production of GSH. | [132] |
| Embryos | Nanospheres: 27 nm; nanosticks: 32×81 nmM; and SMPs: 202 nm | 120 hpf | 2, 4, 8, 16, and 32 mg Zn/L | LC50 for Zn2+ =7.9 mg Zn/L, LC50 ZnO SMPs =10.0 mg Zn/L
LC50 nanosticks =7.1 Zn/L
LC50 nanospheres =11.9 mg Zn/L, respectively; higher toxicity of Zn ions in comparison to the different shaped NPs; and decrease of hatching rate dose-dependent in the embryos treated with all the different kind of nanoparticles and sulfate, strongest delay in samples exposed to nanosticks. Decrease dose-dependent of swimming activity; nanosticks more toxic than the other NPs. | — | [133] |
| Embryos | 5, 10, 15, 26, 34, 62, and 70 nm | 120 hpf | 0.016 to 250 mg/L | Significant mortality at 24 hpf for all the coated NPs; no alteration in mortality with bare nanoparticles. | — | [134] |
| Embryos | 20-30 nm | 96 hpf | 0.01, 0.1, 1, and 10 mg/L | Higher mortality rate by ZnO NPs than ZnSO4; LC25 for ZnO NPs =2.64 mg/L; LC25 for ZnSO4 = 7.75 mg/L; and significant embryonic malformations after both treatments (tail malformation, pericardial edema, and yolk sac edema). | Downregulation of ogfrl2 and intl2 transcripts; upregulation of cyb5d1. | [17] |
| Embryos | <100 nm | 48 h | 10, 30, 60, 90, or 120 mg/L | Delay in hatching, increased heart rate, pericardial edema, hyperemia, yolk sac edema, spinal curvature, tail deformities, and swim bladder abnormalities. | SOD increased activity; sod1 upregulation; CAT downregulation; increased MDA levels; and increased production of ROS. | [116] |
| Embryos | 40 nm | 96 hpf | 12.5, 25, 50 mg/L; PFOS (0, 0.4, 0.8, and 1.6 mg/L); and PFOS plus ZnO-NPs (0.4 + 12.5, 0.8 + 25, and 1.6 +50 mg/L | — | Significant increase of SOD activity as well as the activity of glutathione peroxidase; decrease dose-dependent of CAT activity: excess of ROD; increase of MDA level; upregulation of Bax; downregulation of Bcl-2; and no changes in the activities of the caspase-3 and caspase-9 (apart at 50 mg/L). | [124] |
| Embryos | 300 nm | 72 h, 96 h | 10-100 ppm | Mitigate effects on the toxicity of ZnO NPs induced organic matter. | — | [4] |
| Embryos, adults | PEG =2588 nm
PVA =58 nm
PVP =60
Bare =69 nm | Embryos: 72 h
Adults: 96 h | Embryos: 0.001-100 mg/L | Embryos: morphological defects (yolk sac edema, notochord bending, and egg coagulation) for bare and the capped NPs; rates of toxicity after treatment with 10 mg/L were 38.67%, 28.49%, 95.46%, and 89.32% for PEG-, PVA-, and PVP-capped and bare ZnO NPs, respectively; toxicity of bulk ZnO < ZnO-PVA < ZnO-PEG < ZnO NPs < ZnO-PVP.
Adults: LC50 of bulk ZnO =3239 mg/L; LC50 ZnO-PEG =6.44 mg/L; LC50 ZnO-PVA =9.40 mg/L; LC50 ZnO-PVP =3.77 mg/L; LC50 ZnO NPs =20.72 mg/L; and different morphological alterations; severe damages to the gill tissues (secondary lamellar structure alterations, necrosis, desquamation, acute cellular swelling, aneurysm, and lamellar disorganization). | — | [16] |
| Adults | 30 nm | 96 h | 2, 5, 10, 30, and 50 mg/L | Toxicity dose-dependent; 100% of mortality at 30 mg/mL of ZnO NPs and bulk ZnO; and LC50 = 4.92 mg/L and 3.31 mg/L, for the ZnO NPs and bulk ZnO, respectively. | Increase of SOD activity SOD in the gut; reduction of CAT activity in the liver; increase of CAT activity in gut and gills (only slightly); decrease of GSH in the liver; MDA levels higher in the case of liver; and injuries in the gill tissues with shrinkage of the cells, loss of the cytoplasm, and abnormalities in the nuclei shapes. | [9] |
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