A Common Feature of Pesticides: Oxidative Stress—The Role of Oxidative Stress in Pesticide-Induced Toxicity

Figure 1

Schematic representation of signaling pathways involved in pesticide-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) and oxidative stress. Pesticides increase NADPH oxidases (NOXs) and superoxide (O₂^•−) levels, which leads to an increase in ROS signaling in the cell. Increased ROS may induce lipid, protein, and DNA oxidation, leading to various toxicities. These stressors lead to activation of TNFR1/TNF-α, MAPKs, NF-κB, and the mitochondrial apoptosis pathways. Continued stress leads to cell apoptosis and inflammation.