Poststroke Seizure and Epilepsy: A Review of Incidence, Risk Factors, Diagnosis, Pathophysiology, and Pharmacological Therapies

Figure 3

Current discovered pathological mechanisms of poststroke epilepsy gathered from 2017-2021. This figure reveals each pathological factor: interleukin-6 (IL-6), epinephrine, high-mobility group protein B1 (HMGB-1), downregulation of CD32, upregulation of HLA-DR on granulocytes and monocytes, neuropeptide Y, increased theta oscillation in hippocampal CA1 pyramidal resonant neurons, cerebral small vessel disease, and the mechanism by which they disrupt normal neurological function. Each new pathological discovery reveals a dysfunction of the immune system, causing gliosis, neuroinflammation, and loss of adaptive immunity. Note that HMGB-1 is not found after a seizure episode but after a recent stroke.