Effects of Polyphenols on Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, and Interconnected Pathways during Spinal Cord Injury

Figure 3

Oxidative stress and cross-talk signaling mediators post-SCI. The modulatory role of polyphenols. Akt: tyrosine kinase B; ARE: antioxidant response element; Ca²⁺: calcium; CAT: catalase; COX: cyclooxygenase; GABAR: gamma-aminobutyric acid receptor; GSH: glutathione; GPx: glutathione peroxidase; IKKB: IkB kinase; IL: interleukin; Keap1: Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1; LPO: lipid peroxidation; MAPK: mitogen-activated protein kinase; MDA: malondialdehyde; MOR: morphine receptor; NADPHO: nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase; Na⁺/K⁺: sodium/potassium; NF-κB: nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B; NOS: nitric oxide synthase; NR2B: N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor subtype 2B; Nrf2: nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2; PARP: poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase; PI3K: phosphoinositide 3-kinase; SOD: superoxide dismutase; SCI: spinal cord injury; TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor-alpha.