|
| The article authors’ aligned the OTPF domains with the identified programs’ in the review |
| Manualized programs and/or interdisciplinary programs | Occupation | Context | Performance patterns | Performance skills | Client factors | Findings |
|
| SMART (strategic memory and reasoning training): utilizes a top down strategy based approach to improve cognitive control functions of strategic attention, integrative reasoning, and innovation [15] | Education, work | | | Processing skills | Attention, executive functions | SMART was found to improve executive functions including reasoning, inhibition, and daily function [16]. |
|
| GMT (goal management training): uses metacognitive strategies to improve patients’ ability to organize and achieve goals in real-life situations [1] | Education | | | Task organization | Metacognition, executive functions | GMT saw improvement in self-reported cognitive executive function in daily life and improved performance on attention-demanding tasks [17]. |
|
| CRT (cognitive rehabilitation therapy): enables the patient with a brain injury to return within reason to a normal life through reconstruction or compensation of the lost functions [18] | | | | | Self-awareness, attention, self-control | CRT obtained effects through the course of therapy but there was no transfer of capability to daily life [18]. |
|
| CogSMART (cognitive symptom management and rehabilitation therapy): multimodal compensatory cognitive training intervention emphasizing habit learning and compensatory strategies in prospective memory, attention, learning and memory, and executive function [9] | Education (learning) | | Habits | | Memory, attention, executive functions
Attention/working memory, verbal learning/memory, and novel problem solving | CogSMART found significant reductions in self-reported postconcussive symptoms as well as improvements in real-world prospective memory performance [9], QoL, and daily functioning [19] |
|
| CST (cognitive strategy training): aims to teach individual strategies that allow them to work around their cognitive deficits [20] | Education (psychoeducation) | Lifestyle strategies | Routine (planner) | Didactic presentations, discussions | Memory, attention, executive functions | CST showed signs of perceived usefulness of cognitive compensation strategies, reduced depression and cognitive symptom severity, and increased life satisfaction [20]. |
|
| Compensatory cognitive training: group-session of interactive didactic presentations, in-class discussions, and activities that introduced participants to a variety of cognitive strategies and external aids [21] | Sleep, education (overlearning) | | Time management | Organization | Memory, attention, executive functions goal-setting | This training saw fewer cognitive and memory difficulties as well as greater use of cognitive strategies. It also facilitated behavioral change and subjective/objective improvements in targeted cognitive domains [21]. |
|
| GOALS (goal-oriented attentional self-regulation): a cognitive rehabilitation training program that targets executive control functions by teaching participants in applied mindfulness-based attention regulation and goal management strategies and applying them to real-life goals determined by the participant [22] | | Apply skills/goals to real-life settings | | | Attention, memory, executive functions | GOALS had meaningful and lasting improvements in cognition, emotional regulation, and daily functioning [22]. |
|
| Memory training: interventions include restorative approaches and compensatory approaches such as the use of an external memory aid (EMA) [10] | ADLs, education (of impairment), health management (meaningful activities), work, leisure | | | | Memory, functional goals | This training saw sustained use of EMA when the intervention was linked with the client’s functional and meaningful goals to get them to participate in the training [23]. |
|
| Mindfulness-based stress reduction: a group-based intervention that practices mindfulness involving learning attention control and cultivating moment-to-moment awareness of thoughts, feelings, and bodily sensations [7] | Meditation, yoga | | | | Attention, memory, perception, executive functions | This training saw an increase in selective and sustained attention, working memory, autobiographical memory, visuospatial functioning, and executive functioning [24], |
|
| Metacognitive strategy instruction: includes strategies to improve the capacity to analyze and synthesize information, direct corrective feedback for self-awareness issues, and group-based interventions for executive and problem-solving deficits [25] | | | | Organization, planning | Memory, problem solve, dual-task operations, modeling, self-awareness, goal-directed behavior, self-regulation, self-monitoring, and reasoning | This instruction is recommended as a practice standard for improving goal-directed cognitive and emotional functioning [11]. |
|
| Executive function rehabilitation: direct instruction to teach individuals to regulate their behavior by breaking complex tasks into steps while thinking strategically [26] | Cognitive orientation to occupational performance | | | | Higher level cognitive, problem-solving, organization, higher order thinking, breaking complex tasks into steps | This rehabilitation was effective in teaching the skill but benefits did not appear to transfer over to real-life situations [26]. |
|
| TAPAT (tonic and phasic alertness training): participants required to execute a speeded response via a single button press to all foil images and withhold response to the infrequent target image [27] | | | | | Executive function, attention, alertness | TAPAT saw improvements in untrained, complex, and effortful measures of executive function, suggesting that improvements in alertness can also facilitate improvements in higher-order cognitive operations [27]. |
|
| Attention training: ranges from simple tasks such as using flashcards to improve basic attention skills to more complex tasks to improve complex attention and working memory using a variety of visual and verbal tasks [10] | | | | | Attention (focused, sustained, selective, alternating, and divided attention), memory | Attention training had strong evidence for treatment-specific effects of skill training for attention [26]. |
|
| Functional/cognitive communication: communication rehabilitation program to provide opportunities for the person to rehearse his/her communication skills in situations appropriate to the context in which that person will live, work, study, and socialize [28] | | | | Listening, speaking, writing, reading, conversation, and social interaction | | While not a complete program, this stresses the importance of measuring outcomes that are meaningful for the person at a social participation level [28]. |
|
| Return to work (RTW): cognitive interventions were focused on improving memory, postconcussive symptoms, and neuropsychological functioning [29] | | | | | Memory, attention, executive function | This program found compensatory cognitive strategies with supportive devices appear to be more effective than remedial strategies when facilitating RTW and community integration post TBI [29]. |
|
| Computerized programs: designed to restore basic cognitive functions through computer-administered graded exercises [30] | | | | | Executive functions | No conclusive evidence supporting the use of computerized methods of cognitive rehabilitation following TBI was found with computer programs [26]. |
|
| Virtual reality (VR): interactive stimulation that gives the user an opportunity to perform in an environment similar to a physical environment [31] | ADLs, IADLs (uses virtual environment), work, shopping | | | Task performance | Planning, time management, monitor performance, higher level function, self-awareness | Greater improvement found in executive function in the group that used VR, which may lead to improvement in the ability to perform IADL activities among people following TBI [31]. |
|
| Artificial intelligence virtual reality based training program (AIVTS): an interactive, scenario-based program in which trainees must achieve an acceptable level before moving to the next one; otherwise, the level is repeated [32] | | | | | Cognitive functioning (in general) | AIVTS saw improvements in selective cognitive functioning but it did not transfer to real-world outcomes [32]. |
|
| Psychoeducational vocational training system (PEVTS): a training manual given under the supervision of a vocational trainer by practicing routines, tutorials with specific instructional branches, simulations, and instructional games on problem-solving [32] | | | | | Problem-solving, following directions | PEVTS did not transfer into real-world outcomes [32]. |
|
| CO-OP (cognitive orientation to occupational performance): metacognitive strategies, compensatory strategies, videoconference supports, and virtual reality environments for community reintegration [33] | ADLs, IADLs | | | | Higher level cognitive (metacognitive strategies), attention (processing, divided), perception (tactile feedback) | CO-OP demonstrated that daily cognition can be improved by providing therapy in a patient’s natural environment and through the use of technology to train skills needed for daily functioning [33]. |
|
| Intensive cognitive communication rehabilitation (ICCR): classroom-style lectures, therapy, and technology training. Retraining of cognitive skills with academically focused application [34] | Education | | | | Verbal expression, language and communication, memory | |
|
| BrainHQ, posit science computer training: exercises targeted at improving the speed and accuracy of neural information processing [35] | | | | | Cognitive composite scores | |
|
