Enhancement of Executive Functions but Not Memory by Multidomain Group Cognitive Training in Patients with Parkinson’s Disease and Mild Cognitive Impairment: A Multicenter Randomized Controlled Trial

Table 1

Training effects for cognitive outcomes for both groups at the pre- and posttest.

	Cognitive training (n = 33)		Physical activity (n = 31)		ITT −  value (time × group)		PP −  value (time × group)
	Pretest	Posttest	Pretest	Posttest
Global cognition					0.322	0.287	0.166	0.374
Memory					0.171	0.081	0.159	0.091
CVLT total score trials 1-5^a	−1.38 ± 1.31^1	−0.94 ± 1.33^1	−1.00 ± 1.19^3	−0.91 ± 1.08^3	0.166	0.031	0.135	0.039
CVLT long delay free recall II^a	−1.25 ± 1.17^1	−1.23 ± 1.37^1	−1.18 ± 1.04^3	−0.86 ± 1.29^3	0.187	0.028	0.202	0.029
ROCFT delayed recall^a	0.15 ± 0.94^1	0.38 ± 0.91^1	0.23 ± 1.18^2	0.25 ± 0.88^2	0.386	0.012	0.418	0.012
Executive functions					0.095	0.132	0.087	0.142
Semantic word fluency^a	0.48 ± 0.89^1	0.53 ± 1.13^1	0.35 ± 1.43^2	0.28 ± 1.42^2	0.649	0.004	0.531	0.007
Phonemic word fluency^a	0.27 ± 0.86^1	0.65 ± 0.93^1	0.34 ± 1.16^2	0.17 ± 1.16^2	0.018	0.092	0.020	0.094
MCST categories^a	−0.81 ± 1.01^3	−0.46 ± 1.01^3	−0.92 ± 1.02^3	−0.99 ± 0.96^3	0.131	0.039	0.127	0.042
Key search—raw score^a	11.42 ± 3.15^1	11.52 ± 2.87^1	11.13 ± 3.44^2	10.29 ± 2.92^2	0.320	0.017	0.250	0.024
Attention					0.401	0.030	0.392	0.033
d2-R errors^a	−0.29 ± 1.40^1	0.01 ± 1.32^1	−0.45 ± 1.27^2	0.06 ± 1.38^2	0.509	0.007	0.378	0.014
d2-R concentration performance^a	−1.57 ± 0.97^1	−1.33 ± 0.96^1	−1.53 ± 1.05^2	−1.35 ± 1.05^2	0.373	0.016	0.413	0.012
Working memory					0.174	0.056	0.175	0.059
Letter-number sequencing (WAIS)^a	0.06 ± 0.77^1	0.19 ± 0.74^1	0.13 ± 1.02^2	0.21 ± 1.09^2	0.772	0.001	0.774	0.001
Digit span backward (WAIS)^a	−0.04 ± 1.13^1	−0.38 ± 0.86^1	−0.42 ± 1.09^2	−0.31 ± 0.99^2	0.098	0.043	0.099	0.046
Visuocognition					0.597	0.017	0.635	0.016
ROCFT figure copy^a	0.40 ± 1.10^1	0.76 ± 0.95^1	0.08 ± 1.78^2	0.64 ± 1.20^2	0.431	0.010	0.462	0.009
Benton judgment of line orientation^a	−0.56 ± 1.46^1	−0.19 ± 0.99^1	−0.67 ± 1.35^2	−0.13 ± 1.22^2	0.545	0.006	0.574	0.005
Language					0.319	0.037	0.317	0.040
Boston naming test^a	0.05 ± 1.18^1	0.24 ± 1.16^1	−0.23 ± 1.44^2	0.19 ± 1.00^2	0.341	0.015	0.337	0.016
Speech comprehension (ACL)—raw score^a	17.88 ± 0.42^1	17.82 ± 0.53^1	17.39 ± 1.89^2	17.81 ± 0.75^2	0.161	0.031	0.160	0.034
PD-MCI
Yes (%)	33 (100%)	21 (63.6%)	31 (100%)	20 (64.5%)
No (%)	0 (0%)	12 (36.4%)	0 (0%)	11 (35.5%)
Single-domain PD-MCI (%)	2 (6.1%)	1 (3.0%)	0 (0%)	0
Multidomain PD-MCI (%)	31 (93.9%)	32 (97.0%)	31 (100%)	20 (100%)

The references of the neuropsychological and clinical assessments are obtainable by the authors upon request; data are indicated as mean standardized z-scores (if available) or raw scores and standard deviations. ACL, Aphasia Check List; BDI-II, Beck Depression Inventory II; CVLT, California Verbal Learning Test; ITT, intention-to-treat analysis; MCST, Modified Wisconsin Card Sorting Test; PD-MCI, Parkinson’s disease with mild cognitive impairment; PP, per-protocol analysis; ROCFT, Rey–Osterrieth Complex Figure Test; WAIS, Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. ^aHigher values indicate better performance; ¹n = 33; ²n = 31; ³n = 30.