Vulnerability of Parkinson’s Patients to COVID-19 and Its Consequences and Effects on Them: A Systematic Review

Rezayi, Sorayya; Rahmani Katigari, Meysam; Shahmoradi, Leila; Nilashi, Mehrbakhsh

doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/6272982

Parkinson’s Disease

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Abstract Introduction Methods Results Discussion Conclusion Abbreviations Data Availability Conflicts of Interest Authors’ Contributions References Copyright Related Articles

Review Article | Open Access

Volume 2023 | Article ID 6272982 | https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/6272982

Vulnerability of Parkinson’s Patients to COVID-19 and Its Consequences and Effects on Them: A Systematic Review

Sorayya Rezayi,¹Meysam Rahmani Katigari,²Leila Shahmoradi,¹and Mehrbakhsh Nilashi³

Academic Editor: Hélio Teive

Received01 Aug 2022

Revised08 Feb 2023

Accepted09 Apr 2023

Published24 Apr 2023

Abstract

Introduction. Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the second most common neurological disorder. Patients with PD were affected by the COVID-19 pandemic in many different ways. This study’s principal purpose is to assess PD patients' vulnerability to COVID-19 and its consequences. Method. This systematic review was performed based on Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyzes (PRISMA) guidelines. A thorough search was conducted in the Medline (through PubMed) and Scopus databases from inception to January 30, 2022. The Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) critical appraisal checklist was used to evaluate the studies. Results. Most of the studies (38%) had been conducted in Italy. Of the total number of studies, 17 (58%) were cross-sectional, seven (22%) were cohort, four (12%) were quasiexperimental, two (6%) were case-control, and one (3%) was a qualitative study. The PD duration in patients ranged from 3.26 to 13.40 years (IQR1: 5.7 yrs., median: 3.688 yrs., and IQR3: 8.815 yrs.). Meanwhile, the sample size ranged from 12 to 30872 participants (IQR1: 46, median: 96, and IQR3: 211). Despite worsening PD symptoms in the targeted population (persons with COVID-19 and Parkinson’s disease), some studies found PD to be a risk factor for more severe COVID-19 disease. There are many adverse effects during the pandemic period in PD patients such as abnormalities of motor, nonmotor functioning, clinical outcomes, activities of daily living, and other outcomes. Conclusion. This study confirmed the negative effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on health-related quality of life and its determinants in patients with PD and their caregivers. Thus, due to the worsening symptoms of PD patients in the current pandemic, these people should be given more care and supervision to minimize their coronavirus exposure.

1. Introduction

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is the second most common neurological disorder. Patients with PD were affected by the COVID-19 pandemic in many different ways. Although the exact cause of PD is unknown, many researchers believe that factors such as genetics and environment lead to the gradual degeneration of neurons in sensitive areas of the brain and the development of PD [1]. PD affects 1 to 2 out of every 1,000 people in the population. Its prevalence increases with age and affects 1% of the population over the age of 60 [2]. From 1990 to 2019, the global and regional burden of Parkinson’s disease increased. PD has had the most rapid growth in incidence and disability among neurological disorders in recent years, becoming one of the most significant causes of disability worldwide [3].

The continuation of the COVID-19 pandemic has raised numerous concerns about the increasing vulnerability of people with chronic diseases, especially neurological diseases [4]. COVID-19 can affect patients with a pre-existing neurological disorder, whether acquired or inherited. This effect is one of the significant issues facing neurologists in recent months. Also, concerns have been raised in long-term care centers about the vulnerability of PD patients to COVID-19. This is also true for most neurological diseases, which means that patients suffering from a debilitating neurological disorder are at greater risk of other diseases, especially COVID-19. But there is still not enough data to confirm this claim [5].

As a risk factor, PD can negatively affect the prognosis in cases of COVID-19. COVID-19 causes pharmacodynamic changes, such as the interaction between dopaminergic and renin-angiotensin systems in the striatum and systemic inflammation responses in PD patients, leading to the worsening of PD and exacerbation of symptoms. Also, factors such as disease-related weakness and aging may make these patients weaker than others in society. Antonini and colleagues stated that patients with PD would have a higher mortality rate if they developed COVID-19 [6]. Stress, anxiety, depression, and social isolation can also have devastating effects on PD symptoms, leading to the worsening of the disease [7]. Symptoms of the exacerbated disease include impaired motor function, an increased need for daily doses of levodopa, fatigue, cognitive impairment, and sleep disturbances. Nevertheless, the evidence for the effect of COVID-19 outcomes in patients with PD is not yet conclusive, and currently, PD and additional motion disorders have not been recognized as risk factors for COVID-19 [7].

Given that PD is a common neurological disorder in developed and developing societies, preventing the exacerbation of symptoms and declining quality of life is one of the most critical actions that policymakers should consider. In the current context of the COVID-19 pandemic worldwide, some studies have suggested that the physical and cognitive symptoms of PD patients have worsened because the current pandemic has prevented them from continuing their rehabilitation programs as usual [8–11]. Some studies have also suggested that COVID-19 disease has a more devastating effect on PD patients, leading to the worsening of vital signs compared to other patients [4, 12–14]. All these statements have been stated in recent studies, but for a more detailed review and evaluation of its various dimensions, a comprehensive and more detailed review is needed. So, it needs to be clarified precisely whether the COVID-19 pandemic has affected PD patients or not. By knowing the extent of COVID-19’s impact and consequences, we can think of appropriate solutions to prevent such effects, reduce harm, and ultimately improve patients' health. Therefore, there is a need for a comprehensive systematic review to investigate the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on PD patients. This systematic review endeavors to answer the following questions: RQ1: what are the symptoms and consequences of PD that may be exacerbated by COVID-19? RQ2: what are the effects and consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic for PD patients?

1.1. Research Problems and Objectives

According to our overview, several studies have examined the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on PD patients. In most cases, studies have shown that the COVID-19 pandemic either directly through the individual’s illness or indirectly through lifestyle changes and quarantine problems has caused various problems for PD patients. Nevertheless, the effects of COVID-19 on PD patients have not yet been definitively examined in any comprehensive study. The COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted PD-related care, including medical care, exercise, and social activities. Some medical centers, even Parkinson’s clinics, have closed their services due to the pandemic. Impaired medical care can lead to irregular hospital visits and more problems with PD medications because they require a prescription, which may force PD patients to reduce or discontinue their medications. It can also worsen the symptoms of PD, which increases the mortality rate of PD patients. It also has more devastating effects on their condition if they are infected with COVID-19. The principal purpose of this study is to assess the vulnerability of PD patients to the COVID-19 pandemic and its consequences. The purpose of this study is to (1) consider the extent of change in signs and symptoms of PD due to COVID-19 (direct impact of COVID-19); (2) examine the various consequences of COVID-19 lockdown on patients with PD (the indirect effect of COVID-19).

2. Methods

The current study is a systematic review. The study protocol was written together with the research team. In this protocol, the study method was designed in six steps. The first step was to determine the inclusion and exclusion criteria. The second step was designing the search strategy. The third step was to select the studies that fit the purpose of the research, and the next step was to collect and extract the relevant data from the included studies. The assessment of the studies and the synthesis of the results were the two final steps, which are all explained in detail in the following. Also, this systematic review was performed based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyzes (PRISMA) proposed by Zhang et al. [15].

2.1. Eligibility Criteria

2.1.1. Inclusion Criteria

PICO is a useful tool for conducting qualitative reviews and asking focused clinical questions. A reliable and comprehensive query should have four components that recognize the patient problem or population (P), the intervention (I), the comparison (C), and the outcome (O). According to the PICO tool, the inclusion criteria in this systematic review include the following:(i)Population: the study population in this systematic review comprised patients with PD OR COVID-19 patients with PD as a comorbidity(ii)Intervention: a group of COVID-19 patients with PD as their comorbidity OR PD patients(iii)Comparison: a group of patients without PD(iv)Outcome: in-hospital consequences included morbidity or severe COVID-19 infection OR self-reported changes in symptoms in patients without COVID-19

2.1.2. Exclusion Criteria

(1)Studies published in a non-English language(2)No journal articles and proceedings such as review papers, letters, and book chapters(3)Articles that lack full abstracts for review(4)Investigations in which the effects, evaluation, and approaches (clinical assessment or self-report) have not been reported or have not been satisfactorily clarified

2.2. Information Sources and Search Strategy

A systematic and comprehensive search was conducted in two scientific databases: Medline (through PubMed) and Scopus, to determine relevant papers published from inception to January 30, 2022, with terms of Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) related to COVID-19 and PD. Table 1 illustrates the applied terms or keywords used in the search strategy and the coverage dates for each database. We utilized reference manager software (EndNote X8, Thomson Reuters) to organize references and eliminate duplicates.

2.3. Study Selection

The selection process was performed in two stages. In the first stage, two reviewers (SR and MR) independently filtered the titles and abstracts of the retrieved citations. At this stage, articles that did not meet the inclusion criteria were removed. In the second stage, the full text of the articles was retrieved and reviewed and two reviewers confirmed their relevance. In the event of disagreement, the third and fourth reviewers (LS and MN) were consulted to solve the problem through a consensus method. In Figure 1, the screening process is depicted by the 2020 PRISMA checklist.

2.4. Data Collection Process and Data Items

Two reviewers (SR and MR) collected the required information from the chosen examinations. The accuracy of the accumulated information was verified by a reviewer (LS). In the last phase, a third reviewer (MN) assessed and solved any conflicts. The main features of the included papers that were mined and synthesized were entered into a structured form in Excel. In Figure 2, the characteristics of chosen articles are depicted.

2.5. Study Risk of Bias Assessment

The Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) critical appraisal checklist can be used for assessing all types of studies’ methodological conduct or reporting. This tool has eight questions, which can be answered with four choices: 1: yes; 2: no; 3: unclear; and 4: not applicable. Each “yes” answer obtains one score, and if 70% of the questions are responded with “yes” in research, the risk of bias is considered “low.” Also, if 50% to 69% of them are answered yes, the risk of bias is “moderate,” and finally, if less than 50% of the questions responded “yes,” the risk of bias is considered as “high” [16]. Two authors (SR and MR) completed this checklist, and in the event of a controversy between the two authors, the disagreement was resolved via discussion with the third and fourth referees (LS and MN).

2.6. Synthesis of Results

Meta-analysis was not used in this systematic review, as the methods and methodology of reporting results in chosen papers were heterogeneous.

3. Results

3.1. Results of the Search

A total of 1117 articles were found in the initial search, and after removing duplicates, 736 papers were left. Authors mined the title, abstract, and keywords of selected articles, so 96 articles were identified for further review. After viewing the full text of these articles and focusing on our objectives, 31 papers were included in this review. Given that the purpose of this systematic review was to examine the vulnerability of PD patients to COVID-19, the key results and characteristics are presented in three Tables (Tables 2–4). In Table 2, the study group consisted of PD patients who suffered from various injuries. In Table 3, the study group is PD patients who have COVID-19, and the consequences of the disease for them have been studied. In Table 4, the target group is both PD patients (without COVID-19) and PD patients with COVID-19 in a combined form.

3.2. Quality Assessment of the Included Papers

Various studies with different designs were entered into this systematic review, and they were evaluated with an appropriate scale. The Joanna Briggs Institute Critical Appraisal (JBI) checklists were used for assessing cross-sectional, case-control, cohort, quasiexperimental, and qualitative studies. As we can see in Figure 3, twenty-one studies were considered to have a low risk of bias and ten were considered to have a moderate risk of bias.

3.3. Publication Analysis

3.3.1. Distribution of Papers by Published Year/Month and by Their Conducted Countries

The final distribution of papers indicates that 31 academic citations met the inclusion criteria. As can be seen in Figure 4, the largest number of studies was published in 2021. Most of the papers (38.70%) were conducted in Italy (Figure 5).

3.3.2. Distribution of Academic Papers by Journals, Quartile Scores, Impact Factors (IF), and Publisher

Reviewed scientific papers (n = 31) were retrieved from 18 journals. The impact factor (IF) and quartile scores of the journals are presented in Table 5. It is worth noting that seven of the eighteen journals (38.88%) are ranked in the first quarter. As our analysis showed, Springer had the first rank (28.57%) among the publishers.

3.3.3. General Characteristics of the Included Papers

Of the total number of studies, 17 (58%) were cross-sectional, seven (22%) were cohort, four (12%) were quasiexperimental, two (6%) were case-control, and one (3%) was qualitative. In eighteen studies (58%), the study population was PD patients who had been affected by pandemic conditions (PD patients without COVID-19). Furthermore, in eleven papers, PD patients infected with COVID-19 were the study population. In two papers, PD patients with and without COVID-19 were the study population (both study populations). In five investigations, the PD duration was not declared. The PD duration ranged from 3.26 to 13.40 years (IQR1: 5.7 yrs., median: 3.688 yrs., and IQR3: 8.815 yrs.). Meanwhile, the sample size of the studies ranged from 12 to 30872 participants (IQR1: 46, median: 96, and IQR3: 211).

3.3.4. Effects of the COVID-19 Pandemic on PD Patients

A total of 31 studies were included in this systematic review. In 11 of them, the target group was PD patients with COVID-19 [14, 17–26]. In these studies, the symptoms and consequences of COVID-19 in PD patients were evaluated. In 17 studies [5, 8–10, 27–39], the target group was PD patients affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, whose symptoms had been worsened. In two studies [11, 40], the target groups were PD patients with and without COVID-19. These two were reviewed for worsening Parkinson’s symptoms because of their study group. We also examined whether PD was a risk factor for more severe cases of COVID-19.

3.3.5. Negative Outcomes of the Pandemic in PD Patients

Table 6 shows the effect of the COVID-19 pandemic on the symptoms of PD patients in related studies. Of the 19 studies reviewed in this section [5, 8–11, 27–40], 18 studies claimed that PD patients’ symptoms were severely affected by the pandemic and only one study [40] demonstrated that there was no change in the PD patient’s symptoms. The results of the studies also showed adverse effects of the pandemic on PD patients’ symptoms, such as abnormalities of movement (motor functioning) and nonmotor functioning (psychiatric symptomatology). Symptoms such as tremor/shaking, gait/balance disturbances, rigidity (frigidity), fatigue, pain, distress/depression, anxiety/stress, sleep disorders (insomnia), mood disturbances, and cognitive dysfunction in patients have been severely affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, and the quality of life has been considerably reduced.

3.3.6. Symptoms of PD Patients with COVID-19

Table 7 shows the symptoms and consequences of COVID-19 infection in PD patients. As can be seen in the table, many symptoms, such as motor, nonmotor functioning, clinical outcomes, activities of daily living, and other outcomes, worsened during the COVID pandemic period. The results indicated that PD was reported as a risk factor for more severe COVID-19 disease in six studies out of 13 studies [11, 14, 18, 22, 24, 26]. However, others have acknowledged that there is no link between more severe COVID-19 disease and Parkinson’s disease [17, 19–21, 23, 25]. Also, the results of one study were not clear [40].

4. Discussion

The main goal of our systematic review was to describe and examine the vulnerability of PD patients to COVID-19 and its consequences and effects on them. To our knowledge, this study primarily focuses on identifying the symptoms and consequences of PD that may be exacerbated by COVID-19 and also the critical effects and consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic on PD patients. In total, 31 studies from the PubMed and Scopus databases were included in the review.

In some studies, the target groups were PD patients with COVID-19, among whom the acute symptoms and consequences of COVID-19 were evaluated [14, 17–26]. In some other studies, the target groups were PD patients affected by the COVID-19 pandemic, whose symptoms had been worsened [5, 8–10, 27–39]. However, in only two studies, the target groups were both PD patients with and without COVID-19 [11, 40].

Some studies have shown that COVID-19 is more common in people with Parkinson’s than in people who do not have Parkinson’s. They also showed that people over the age of 65 or those with severe Parkinson’s disease have been affected rapidly by the new coronavirus [4, 9, 41]. Researchers also found that people with Parkinson’s were more likely to be affected by high-risk illnesses if they get infected with COVID-19. People with Parkinson’s disease may be at an increased risk for severe COVID-19 because of their weakness. The risk increases with age and the development of advanced Parkinson’s disease. Lung function may be impaired due to Parkinson’s disease and respiratory muscle weakness [5, 7]. Hence, recently published studies have shown that 31.9% of patients with pre-existing neurological disorders, including Parkinson’s disease, have experienced the exacerbation of neurological symptoms during COVID-19 infection, regardless of age and duration of illness [42].

In the current pandemic situation, PD patients experience rigidity, fatigue, tremors, and a high level of pain. The subjective increase in tremor and rigidity is in line with previous studies that show these symptoms are susceptible to stress [20, 32, 34]. Increased pain may similarly result from increased anxiety but could also be caused by rigidity. Fatigue is a well-known consequence of psychological distress in PD [43–45].

Studies have shown that the COVID-19 quarantine and pandemic have altered the structure of health care and reduced patient access to the care they need, especially the trilogy treatments, and this has worsened the symptoms of PD patients [33]. Restrictions on access to hospital and outpatient services and interruptions in nonmedical treatments such as motor and cognitive rehabilitation and psychological support were significantly experienced by PD patients during the pandemic [45, 46]. The main problem for these patients was the lack of regular medical advice, which had a negative effect on their quality of life [31]. Also, the feeling of not having access to required services was much greater than the actual experience of not having access to these services [14, 28]. During quarantine, follow-up of medical services became problematic, and PD patients were reluctant to attend virtual therapy sessions [47, 48]. As it turned out, one of the biggest problems of PD patients during the prevention and control period was that they could not get regular advice from a physician [38]. Most of the PD patients decided to go to the hospital with their family members or relatives, and some others used social media software to contact their physicians [49, 50]. However, not all patients are able to use social media on their smartphones.

PD patients sometimes need to modify their medication regimen, which is often delayed during quarantine, causing concern for patients and their families [51, 52]. Changing medication routines, having difficulty accessing medications, and getting medication on time were also challenges that made PD patients anxious. Furthermore, these patients had difficulty obtaining diagnostic and therapeutic medical equipment [53–55].

A review of studies showed that the COVID-19 pandemic and quarantine created challenges in accessing a variety of health services and drugs, causing anxiety and concern in PD patients [56–58]. In general, the COVID-19 pandemic has had a negative impact on the quality of life of PD patients, caregivers, and families. Parkinson’s patients need special attention from medical systems on how to receive medical services and psychosocial support [52, 59, 60].

Most studies have shown that the fear of getting infected by COVID-19, being confined to a limited space, and being banned from outdoor activities have reduced the physical activity of PD patients in addition to worsening their symptoms [33, 61]. In PD patients, experiencing fear can be associated with a greater risk of COVID-19 due to chronic comorbidity and is often attributed to anxiety [16, 37, 38]. During the pandemic, fear increases anxiety in healthy individuals and exacerbates the symptoms of individuals with previous psychiatric disorders [48, 62, 63]. Movement and lack of movement in patients also affect their physical, cognitive, and psychosocial health [56]. Some studies have suggested that a lack of physical activity is the main cause of loss in residual motor skills, especially the inability to perform high-level daily activities [13]. Decreased physical activity causes pain, headache, fatigue, worsening of walking patterns, reduced daily activities, sleep disorders, and insomnia [58]. Like the general population, the most common symptoms of COVID-19 in PD patients include fever or chills, cough, weight loss, and muscle aches. These people may have a fever with nonrespiratory symptoms, such as delirium or a distinct functional decline without any apparent physical symptoms [64, 65]. PD patients have also reported frequent motor symptoms such as bradykinesia, stiffness, and balance disorders, as well as nonmotor symptoms such as lack of motivation [66, 67].

By reducing physical activity, the time spent watching TV and using a mobile phone increase in patients with Parkinson’s disease [68, 69]. Social distancing, loneliness, the inability to perform physical, recreational, family, and group activities, the elimination of therapeutic activities, changes in daily routine, and not continuing physiotherapy sessions or other training-motor training activities lead to physical problems, stress, depression, frustration, anxiety, decreased cognitive functions (attention, concentration, and memory), dissatisfaction with life, and even suicidal thoughts [5, 40]. Studies have shown that reducing physical activity, not continuing rehabilitation sessions, and aggravating the disease’s motor symptoms also cause and exacerbate cognitive and psychological symptoms and affect the quality of life of patients and their families [70, 71].

4.1. Limitations and Strengths of This Study

This study has several strengths, including(1)Performing a comprehensive search strategy to identify a large number of studies(2)Reviewing and evaluating studies to extract data by three authors independently(3)Using a comprehensive tool (JBI) for evaluating the quality of selected studies

We have also encountered some limitations in this study. Our limitations and challenges were the difficulties of comparing studies due to the heterogeneity of the results and the exclusion of published studies because of their non-English language.

5. Conclusion

This systematic review examined the vulnerability of PD patients to COVID-19 and determined the consequences and effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on PD patients. By applying a systematic approach, the authors provided an exhaustive overview of the effects of COVID-19 on PD patients' symptoms. During the SARS-CoV-2 infection, patients with Parkinson’s disease experienced worsening of both motor and nonmotor symptoms. These symptoms include the categories of abnormalities of motor and nonmotor functioning, clinical outcomes, activities of daily living, and other outcomes. In conclusion, this study confirms the negative impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the quality of life and its determinants in PD patients and their caregivers. Thus, due to the worsening symptoms of PD patients in the current pandemic, these people should be given more care and supervision to minimize their exposure to coronavirus. The use of modern technologies such as telemedicine is one of the solutions that can be used for many of these problems.

Abbreviations

MDS-UPDRS:	Motor symptoms: unified Parkinson’s disease rating scale
PDQ-8:	Parkinson’s disease questionnaire
PGI-I:	Patient global impression of improvement
PDQ-39:	Parkinson’s disease questionnaire
PDMSS:	PD motor symptom scale
PSS-10:	Perceived stress scale
PALQ:	Physical activity levels questionnaire
UPDRS:	The modified Hoehn and Yahr scale and unified PD rating scale
DASS-21:	Depression anxiety stress scale-21 item
AES-S, AES-I:	Apathy evaluation scale
LSNS-R:	Lubben social network scale-revised
PDQ-39:	Parkinson’s disease questionnaire
PDQ-39-SI:	With summary index
FES-I:	Falls efficacy scale international
ABCs-I:	The activity-specific balance confidence scale
IRI:	Empathic attitude: interpersonal reactivity index
CBI:	Caregivers’ burden caregiver burden inventory
H and Y stage:	Hoehn and Yahr stage
NPI:	Neuropsychiatric inventory
PASE:	Physical activity scale for the elderly
HADS-A; HADS-D:	Hospital anxiety and depression scale
FI:	Fox insight
NMSQ:	Nonmotor symptoms questionnaire
PAM-13:	Patient activation measure
PCS:	Physical component summary
MCS:	Mental component summary
(SF)-8:	Scores of the short form
IPAQ-SF:	International physical activity questionnaires-short form
PWBM:	Parkinson’s well-being map
BDI:	Beck depression index
NMSS:	12-item Zarit burden inventory nonmotor symptom scale
CISI-PD:	Clinical impression of severity index for Parkinson’s disease
PD-MCI:	Parkinson’s disease with mild cognitive impairment
MCInoPD:	Mild cognitive impairment not associated with Parkinson’s disease
PD:	Parkinson disease
PD-NC:	Parkinson’s disease with normal cognition
CG:	Control group
EG:	Experimental group
AgeM:	Age median
PEC:	Parkinson expert center
SMT:	Standard medical treatment
APD:	Advanced Parkinson’s disease.

Data Availability

All data generated or analyzed during this study are included within the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Authors’ Contributions

S. Rezayi, L. Shahmoradi, and M. Nilashi designed the systematic review, search strategy, and conducted database searches. S. Rezayi and M. Rahmani Katigari conducted article screenings under L. Shahmoradi and M. Nilashi supervision. S. Rezayi and M. Rahmani Katigari conducted the analysis and interpretation under L. Shahmoradi and M. Nilashi supervision. L. Shahmoradi, S. Rezayi, M. Rahmani Katigari, and M. Nilashi drafted the manuscript. Three authors reviewed the content.

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Copyright © 2023 Sorayya Rezayi et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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