A Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Study of Pain among Middle-Aged and Older Adults in Thailand

Table 3

Associations with cross-sectional pain, HART 2015.

Variables	CPR (95% CI)	value	APR (95% CI)	value
Age (in years)	1.014 (1.01 to 1.02)	<0.001	1.004 (0.998–1.011)	0.165
Female	1 (reference)	<0.001	1 (reference)	<0.001
Male	0.73 (0.65 to 0.81)		0.77 (0.67 to 0.88)
≤Elementary education	1 (reference)	<0.001	1 (reference)	<0.001
>Elementary education	0.51 (0.44 to 0.59)		0.63 (0.53 to 0.76)
Not married	1 (reference)	0.403	—
Married	0.95 (0.85 to 1.07)
Muslim or other	1 (reference)	0.182	—
Buddhist	0.87 (0.71 to 1.07)
Income high	1 (reference)	<0.001	1 (reference)	0.452
Income low	1.37 (1.23 to 1.53)		1.06 (0.92 to 1.21)
Current alcohol use	0.84 (0.71 to 1.00)	0.049	1.06 (0.87 to 1.31)	0.558
Smoking tobacco	0.91 (0.77 to 1.08)	0.288	—
Physical activity
None	1 (reference)		—
1–149 minutes/week	1.07 (0.94 to 1.22)	0.285
≥150 minutes/week	0.94 (0.80 to 1.10)	0.438
Body mass index
Normal	1 (reference)		1 (reference)
Underweight	1.21 (0.99 to 1.47)	0.057	1.10 (0.89 to 1.37)	0.380
Overweight	1.03 (0.87 to 1.21)	0.751	1.01 (0.84 to 1.20)	0.948
Obesity I	1.16 (1.00 to 1.35)	0.050	1.14 (0.97 to 1.35)	0.123
Obesity II	1.55 (1.23 to 1.95)	<0.001	1.28 (0.99 to 1.67)	0.061
Probable depression	1.74 (1.47 to 2.06)	<0.001	1.14 (0.93 to 1.41)	0.209
Self-reported mental health (poor)	1.63 (1.45 to 1.84)	<0.001	1.49 (1.29 to 1.72)	<0.001
Sleep problem	2.61 (2.26 to 3.01)	<0.001	1.99 (1.67 to 2.37)	<0.001
Arthritis or rheumatism	3.89 (2.93 to 5.17)	<0.001	3.29 (2.36 to 4.60)	<0.001
Hypertension	1.36 (1.21 to 1.52)	<0.001	1.13 (0.98 to 1.31)	0.103
Diabetes	1.20 (1.03 to 1.39)	0.019	0.90 (0.75 to 1.08)	0.278
Cardiovascular disease	1.54 (1.21 to 1.96)	<0.001	1.09 (0.81 to 1.47)	0.554
Kidney diseases	1.51 (1.02 to 2.22)	0.038	1.36 (0.86 to 2.13)	0.187
Brain diseases and psychiatric problems	2.88 (1.74 to 4.76)	<0.001	2.11 (1.12 to 3.96)	0.020
Lung diseases	2.02 (1.15 to 3.55)	0.014	1.94 (1.03 to 3.63)	0.039
Functional disability	1.46 (1.10 to 1.94)	0.008	1.03 (0.72 to 1.47)	0.879
Health care utilization
Hospital in-patient	2.20 (1.88 to 2.57)	<0.001	1.88 (1.55 to 2.28)	<0.001
Hospital out-patient	1.35 (1.19 to 1.52)	<0.001	1.27 (1.10 to 1.47)	<0.001
Private clinic out-patient	1.76 (1.46 to 2.12)	<0.001	1.51 (1.20 to 1.90)	<0.001
Traditional medicine practitioner	3.10 (2.21 to 4.35)	<0.001	2.41 (1.60 to 3.63)	<0.001

CPR: crude prevalence ratio, APR: adjusted prevalence ratio, and CI: confidence interval.