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Citation | VR description | Vicarious learning | Performance accomplishments | Verbal persuasion |
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| | ✓: full or partial self-representation or avatar or virtual teacher (modeling) | ✓: graduated learning | ✓: instructions or encouragements during/after the game |
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Jaffe et al., 2004 [28] | VR-based treadmill: step over 10 identical virtual obstacles while walking on a treadmill. Subjects could see the lateral view of their legs in the VE. | ✓ Partial self-representation | ✓ Subjects were progressed to step over obstacles with larger height and length (harder task) as they improved in the previous session. | x Unclear if gaming system provided any feedback. |
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You et al., 2005 [29] | IREX VR: the user itself is placed in the VE where they can interact with virtual objects. | ✓ Full self-representation | ✓ Subjects progressed to challenging tasks (speeding up the games or increasing the resistive force) as they improved. | x Unclear if gaming system provided any feedback. |
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Yang, et al., 2008 [30] | VR treadmill: virtual scenarios at a typical community, including lane walking, street crossing, obstacles striding across, and park stroll. The treadmill's incline and speed alter in conjunction with scenery changes. | x No self-representation or avatar or virtual teacher | ✓ The difficulty of the exercise was progressively increased by increasing the speed of the treadmill, the variety in obstacle heights and surface slopes, and decision making opportunities to avoid collisions. | x Unclear if gaming system provided any feedback. |
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Kim et al., 2009 [31] | IREX VR: the user itself is placed in the VE where they can interact with virtual objects. | ✓ Full self-representation | ✓ The games progressively became more challenging (speeding up the games or increasing the resistive force) as the subject improved. | x Unclear if gaming system provided any feedback. |
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Mirelman et al., 2009 [32] | Rutgers Ankle Rehabilitation System: subjects navigated a boat/plane and avoided making contact with a series of targets by moving their foot in different directions. | x No self-representation or avatar or virtual teacher | ✓ Training intensity was based on and progressed according to subject's performance. | ✓ Encouragement was given by the VR after each target was successfully navigated. |
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Mirelman et al., 2010 [33] | Rutgers Ankle Rehabilitation System: subjects navigated a boat/plane and avoided making contact with a series of targets by moving their foot in different directions. | x No self-representation or avatar or virtual teacher | ✓ Training intensity was based on and progressed according to subject's performance. | ✓ Encouragement was given after each target was successfully navigated. |
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Yang et al., 2011 [34] | VR treadmill training: virtual walking in a park along a pathway with right/left turns and home activities (turning a light on/off and opening the door). | x No self-representation or avatar or virtual teacher | x Unclear whether graduated learning was involved. | x Unclear if gaming system provided any feedback. |
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Cho et al., 2012 [35] | Nintendo Wii Fit: subjects stood on a balance board and participated in VEs. | ✓ Subject’s avatar | ✓ Subjects were encouraged to increase the difficulty of the games as they improved. | ✓ Encouragement was provided by the VR system after successful score. |
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Jung et al., 2012 [36] | VR treadmill which immersed subjects in a virtual park stroll. | x Unclear if self-representation or avatar or virtual teacher | ✓ Difficulty gradually increased (increasing the speed of treadmill) as subjects improved. | x Unclear if gaming system provided any feedback. |
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Cho and Lee, 2013 [37] | VR treadmill using real-world video recording. | x Unclear if self-representation or avatar or virtual teacher | ✓ Difficulty gradually increased (increasing the speed of treadmill) as subjects improved. | ✓ Auditory feedback was provided. Unclear if encouragement was given. |
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Fritz et al., 2013 [38] | Nintendo Wii Sports and Wii Fit and EyeToy Play 2 and Kinect. | ✓ Subject’s avatar and virtual teacher | ✓ Difficulty gradually increased (increasing the speed of treadmill) as subjects improved. | ✓ Encouragements and instructions were provided by the VR system. |
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Total number of ✓ | 5 | 10 | 5 |
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