|
| Type | Method | Outcomes | Ref/year |
|
| Sex estimation |
| Foramen and perpendiculars | The distances from the mental foramen to the lower border of the mandible were measured by drawing tangents to the superior and inferior borders of the foramen and perpendiculars from the tangents to the lower border of the mandible. | This parameter showed adequate gender dimorphism in the north Indian population. | [45]/2013 |
| Frontal sinus | The right and left areas and maximum height and width of the frontal sinus were measured using the Caldwell view. | The findings represented no specific diversity between genders in the size of the frontal sinus and logistic regression. | [36]/2014 |
| Maxillary landmarks | Intercanine width, interpupillary distance, intercanthal distance, and interalar distance were measured. | Intercanine width displayed association with different reference points in the faciomaxillary region and inter-gender variation. | [95]/2015 |
| Barr body | Barr bodies were analyzed in nucleated cells from dental pulp using light and fluorescent microscopy. | Barr body is proved to be a reliable identifier for sex identification in forensic dentistry. | [57]/2015 |
| Digital orthopantomograph | Linear and angular measurements of selected radiographic and tomographic images were conducted using the KLONK image measurement software tool. | Both radiographic and tomographic images were suggested as useful tools for sex prediction in forensic dentistry. | [72]/2015 |
| Human maxillary sinuses | The height and width of the right and left maxillary sinuses were measured using the software ImageJ 1.47v. | The height and width of the maxillary sinuses are shown to be highly discriminative between the two genders. | [32]/2016 |
| Mandibular radiographs | Ten variables of the mandibular were evaluated using the Planmeca Romexis software. | Except for the gonial angle, all other nine mandibular variables are shown to be reliable gender identifiers in South Indians. | [71]/2016 |
| Mandible | A systematic review was conducted using the related literature available at MEDLINE, PubMed, and EBSCOhost. | 75% of the total of 20 extracted studies showed a positive correlation between mandibular parameters and gender dimorphism. | [43]/2016 |
| Panoramic radiographs | The height of the mandible and the distance from the superior border of mental foramen and the inferior border of the mental foramen to the lower border of the mandible were measured. | The radiographic analysis of mental foramen showed gender dimorphism in the Maharashtra population. | [44]/2016 |
| Lateral cephalometric radiograph | Lateral cephalograms in standard position with centric closed teeth and relaxed lips were impressed, and the cephalometric traits were sized by a digital caliper. | Findings showed a significant sexual dimorphism in the skull since 6.5 years old. | [77]/2016 |
| Maxillary sinus CT images | The mediolateral, superoinferior, anteroposterior, and maxillary sinus measurements were calculated. | The maxillary sinus dimensions can be used for fairly accurate sex estimation. | [33]/2016 |
| Orthopantomographs | Panoramic graphs were used for measuring maximum ramus height, bigonion width, and bicondylar breadth. | These measures represented reliable parameters for predicting the gender of the deceased person. | [9]/2017 |
| MRI of maxillary sinus | MRI data were collected from the maxillary/paranasal sinuses, and the volume of the maxillary sinus was measured. | Measurements of maxillary sinuses using MRI are shown to be a potential identifier for sex estimation. | [30]/2017 |
| Odontological sex estimation | A systematic review was conducted using grey literature and databases of MEDLINE, PubMed, Cochrane, SciELO, and LILACS. | Numerous studies emphasized the possibility and importance of sex estimation using dental evidence during human identification processes. | [16]/2017 |
| Longitudinal tooth sections | Longitudinal ground sections of teeth in the buccolingual plane along the midline were prepared, and the pulp was removed. | These traits were introduced as a rather reliable tool for sex determination in teeth being extracted over 6 weeks. Additionally, it can be used for determining the ABO blood group. | [167]/2017 |
| Maxillary sinus CT images | Tomographs were used to evaluate the size of the maxillary sinuses, as well as the mediolateral, superoinferior, and anteroposterior dimensions. | These parameters in CT images could be applied for gender determination. | [29]/2017 |
| Gender determination | Two observers recorded the lip prints, mandibular canine index, and facial index measurements. | No significant difference was observed in odontometric analysis which needs a larger study community to validate these results. | [19]/2018 |
| Frontal sinus radiographs | Digital radiography and morphometric evaluation of the frontal sinus were done by Photoshop. | The radiomorphologic method was useful for gender estimation in the Saudi population. | [34]/2019 |
| Mandibular measurement | Morphometric measures of mandibular were estimated from the angles formed at different locations. | The angle of the intersected lines from the left and right gonion to menton (Gn-M0) of mandibular can be considered a sex indicator. | [41]/2019 |
| Age estimation |
| Radiological methods | Systematically review 46 articles on using dental radiological methods for age identification. | The radiographic method was discussed to be a simple and low-cost method for age estimation in comparison with histological and biochemical methods. | [23]/2011 |
| Dentin translucency | Translucency measurements obtained from a digital method and caliper were compared. | The two methods of translucency measurements showed no significant difference. | [53]/2013 |
| Relationship of chronological age and dental age | Panoramic radiographs were included, and various parameters were measured, and the result was analyzed | The accuracy of this method correlates with the precision of evaluations, quality, and number of OPGs. | [22]/2013 |
| Lower third molar radiographies | The mineralization of third molars was measured by assessing the visibility of the periodontal ligament. | This technique was useful for determining people elder than 21 in the Portuguese population. | [26]/2014 |
| Human cementum and secondary dentin | The longitudinal ground sections of the extracted teeth were prepared, and the cemental/incremental lines and thickness of secondary dentin were calculated. | Cementum annuli quantification and secondary dentin amount were suggested as reliable methods for age estimation in human identification. | [51]/2014 |
| Maxillary landmarks | The intercanine width and distances of pupillages, canthi, and interalar were measured. | Intercanine width showed the most correlation with the chronological age of subjects. | [95]/2015 |
| Dental panoramic tomograms | The reliability of Demirjian and Indian formulas for age estimation was calculated. | Both Indian and Demirjian formulas showed underestimation of age. Then, population-specific formulas are suggested to be developed based on the ethnic and environmental variations. | [27]/2015 |
| Digital orthopantomograph | Systematically review related articles, and the KLONK image measurement software tool was selected for calculating the linear and angular measurements of radiographic images. | Radiographic and tomographic images were discussed to be an essential tool for the prediction of age in human identification forensic processes. | [72]/2015 |
| Morphometric radiographs | The radiographs were scanned, standardized to the normal size of radiographic film, and the obtained morphometric measurements were compared. | Total pulp area negatively correlated with age. | [56]/2015 |
| Dentin translucency | Translucency measurements obtained from the digital method and caliper were compared. | The two methods showed identical efficiency in providing translucency measurements. | [52]/2015 |
| Cervical vertebra maturation | A computer App (Cephalometar HF V1) was created and used to label the contours of the cervical vertebrae 2-4 on the digital lateral cephalograms. | This App was discussed to be a reliable method for estimating the cervical vertebral maturation stage. | [40]/2015 |
| Third molar panoramic radiographs | The correlation between the third molar development stage and actual age was analyzed. | The third molar calcification level was introduced as a chronological age indicator. | [17]/2015 |
| Cemental annulations | Cemental lines and the eruption age of teeth were added to obtain the chronological age. | The middle third of the tooth root is propounded to be the most suitable part for calculating annulations. | [47]/2015 |
| Longitudinally ground sections of teeth | The thickness of the cementum was measured using a light microscope and a micrometer eyepiece. | Measuring the cementum thickness at the apical one-third of the root and the cementum overlap or coronal migration at the cementoenamel junction (CEJ) is applicable for forensic age estimation. | [49]/2016 |
| Orthodontics records | The pre- and postorthodontics treatment records were compared. | Orthodontists are required to maintain the dental records in a proper situation. | [83]/2016 |
| Mental foramen position | The foramen upper border-mandible inferior border distance was measured to evaluate the horizontal/vertical position of the mental foramen. | The mental foramen position showed high variability in the Lebanese population. | [46]/2017 |
| Maxillary sinus MRI | Maxillary sinus dimensions were obtained from the MRI of the brain including the paranasal sinuses. | MRI was considered useful for measuring the traits of maxillary sinuses that support the age estimation. | [30]/2017 |
| Cervical vertebra maturation stages | Dental age based on the developmental stages of upper and lower third molars was matched with the skeletal maturation based on the cervical vertebrae maturation stage. | Dental age showed a positive correlation with skeletal maturity in both genders. | [39]/2017 |
| Coronal pulp radiographs | Estimate age using tooth coronal index (TCI) of mandibular first molar and second premolar teeth. | TCI of the pulp cavity was a precise, short, cheap, and noninvasive method used in the Indian population. | [61]/2017 |
| Longitudinal teeth sections | Longitudinal ground sections of teeth in the buccolingual plane along the midline were prepared, and pulp was removed for age determination using cemental lines. | This method was represented as adequately reliable for determining the age, sex, and blood group not only in freshly extracted teeth but also in teeth extracted even after 6 weeks. | [167]/2017 |
| Third molar | The chronological age of patients was evaluated using the Demirjian formula that showed the third molar development stage. | The G and H stages represented individuals above 18 and the E and F stages represented people under 18 in the Iranian population. | [25]/ 2017 |
| Frontal sinus radiographies | Using a direct match of AM/PM MSCT, the morphological data including the lateral expansion of the left lobe, anteroposterior dimension, and the position of median and accessory septa of the sinuses were collected. | The finding confirmed the importance of storing and interpreting radiographic medical data for forensic radiology applications. | [79]/2017 |
| Mandibular parameters | Radiographs of patients were selected to see superior and inferior aspects of the mental foramen and the ramus height. | The ramus height and the mental foramen can be used effectively in the identification of gender using digital panoramic radiography. | [42]/2018 |
| Pulp volume (PV) and tooth volume (TV) measurements | The PV, TV, and PV/TV ratio was calculated for each tooth. | Despite gender, age had a strong correlation with the PV/TV ratio of especially maxillary central incisors. | [55]/2018 |
| CT and MR imaging | Systematically review the literature on using CT or MRI for dental age determination. | The highest accuracy will be obtained when there is a combination of different teeth, methods, and disciplines. | [28]/2018 |
| Cementochronology | Nine anthropological cases were taken from the Forensic Medicine Institute of Lille (France) and compared using routine osteological and dental methods. | The age estimation accuracy and precision of the cementochronological method were comparable to the traditional methods. | [48]/2018 |
| Orocervical radiographic index | New age estimation equations were presented and verified through dental and cervical vertebrae examinations. | The new equations included the cervical vertebrae and dental data and provided high accuracy for age estimation. | [38]2018 |
| Cementum photomicrographs | Formalin-preserved teeth were sectioned, and the annulation lines were counted. | Incremental lines of cementum are shown to be reliable identifiers of the chronological age. | [50]/2018 |
| Paranasal sinuses CT images | An automated tool was developed for measuring the total and air-free volume of the maxillary sinus. | The presented tool is shown to be rapid, reliable, robust, accurate, reproducible, and extensively applicable in forensic dentistry. | [31]/2018 |
| Anthropological parameters | Systematically review the application of recent advances in forensic methodologies including histology, taphonomic impact, anatomical, biochemical, and mathematical approaches. | Advanced technologies such as 3D imagery and scanning and especially biochemical analyses such as dry bone direct examination will impact the progress in the anthropological age estimation process. | [20]/2019 |
| Frontal sinus radiographs | Photoshop was used for digital radiography and morphometric evaluation of the frontal sinus. | The radiomorphologic method was useful for age estimation in the Saudi population. | [34]/2019 |
| TCI (tooth coronal index) | Premolar and molar orthopantomograms were digitally evaluated for the coronal height (CH) and the coronal pulp cavity height (CPCH. | TCI is shown to be a precise, noninvasive, simple, and reliable indicator for age estimation in both living and dead victims. | [54]/2019 |
| Aspartic acid racemization (AAR) | The maxillary first premolar was powdered by heating for 0-72 h at 110°C for AAR analysis, and its AAR rate stability was examined during the storage time. | No significant changes were observed in the AAR rate stability suggesting the powdered dentin as a reliable sample for age estimation procedures. | [21]/2019 |
| Dental sections | Teeth sections were prepared, and various parts of dentin were assessed using a Raman spectroscopy machine. | Raman microspectroscopic analysis of teeth was discussed to be applicable for age estimation. | [114]/2019 |
| Dental biomolecular methods |
| Dental DNA fingerprinting | Systematical reviewed the recent literature on using DNA fingerprinting in forensic investigations. | This new technology has made a revolution in the field of individual identification. | [101]/2010 |
| Dental DNA extraction | The quantity of DNA obtained from the crushed teeth and removed pulp were compared by the standard method of trepanation and amplified DNA microsatellites. | The trepanation method provided more and better DNA for genetic profiling aims. | [112]/2010 |
| DNA profiling in forensic dentistry | Related articles were extracted from the PubMed and Embase electronic databases from 1980 through July 2010. | Teeth were recommended for DNA analysis for their high-quality DNA content that can be helpful in all forensic investigations. | [99]/2011 |
| Dental DNA extraction | Dental DNA was extracted at different times using multiple endodontic techniques by the Minifiler® kit. | The endodontic methodologies are shown to be simple and efficient for genetic analysis of dental DNA. | [107]/2011 |
| DNA extracted from ancient skeletal remains | DNA was extracted and analyzed from two human skeletons from a medieval burial. | Dental DNA was of better quality for later analyses compared to DNA extracted from the bone. | [100]/2012 |
| The literature on dental DNA remains | Summarize the available data on the DNA content of different parts of the tooth and the effect of postmortem changes on the quality of extracted DNA in different extraction protocols. | Some tooth selection and sampling methods were recommended to maximize the efficiency of DNA typing and genetic analysis for identification aims. | [104]/2013 |
| Nuclear DNA from the cementum | The nuclear DNA from the cementum was examined, and its yield was quantified. Also, the effect of bleach on nuclear DNA was explored by histological and quantitative PCR methods. | Cementum was represented as a valuable and accessible source for extracting dental nuclear DNA. | [104]/2013 |
| DNA extracted from oral fluid (OF) | Applications of OF-extracted DNA were reviewed. | OF provides a useful source for forensic dentistry. | [115]/2014 |
| DNA extracted from saliva | The quantity and quality of extracted DNA were assessed using spectrophotometry and PCR. | Saliva was represented as a useful source of DNA for forensic purposes. | [116]/2014 |
| DNA profiling | Review the evolution of DNA isolation and fingerprinting methods. | The individualized nature of DNA has made it acceptable evidence for the court in forensic cases. | [102]/2015 |
| Human skeletal extracted DNA | Various nondestructive methods of DNA extraction were assessed to replace the pulverization method. | A method consisting of a cervical cut was purposed that improved the accessibility of the pulp cavity. | [106]/2015 |
| Nuclear DNA profiling | The integrity of the nuclear DNA extracted from several hard tissues was evaluated using a short tandem repeat (STR) typing and compared. | Rib is shown to be a good source for DNA obtain. | [97]/2015 |
| Complete DNA from caries teeth | Teeth were fragmented, complete DNA was extracted from the dental pulp, and DNA profiling was exerted by the AmpFlSTR® NGM SElect™ kit. | Caries teeth showed to be valid sources for DNA extraction as healthy teeth for forensic purposes. | [109]/2015 |
| Extract DNA from teeth | Two pulverization methods of dentine roots were compared. | A minimally invasive method for extracting DNA from dentine root was suggested that could preserve the tooth and crown morphology. | [111]/2016 |
| DNA extracted from dental pulp | Dog canines were used for total DNA extraction and sequencing by the next-generation sequencing [70]. The sequence analysis was conducted by blasting. | Dental pulp is shown to be a qualified source for DNA in both modern and ancient samples. | [108]/2017 |
| RNA extracted from saliva | RNA extraction from saliva was compared to the amylase-based conventional methods. | Saliva-extracted RNA was introduced as a supplementary method for identification purposes. | [118]/2017 |
| DNA extracted from teeth | Dental DNA was extracted from a submersed adipocere body and an exhumed body. | Cementum had preserved DNA from degradation. | [110]/2018 |
| Salivary total protein | Salivary total protein concentration was profiled, and its changes were surveyed. | The total salivary protein is shown to be an applicable personal identifier in the Gujarat population. | [119]/2018 |
| Salivary microbiome | A systematic review was performed on the related literature to the role of saliva in comparative and reconstructive identification on PubMed and Google Scholar databases. | Salivary microbiome and biomarkers could provide indicative data about the lifestyle, geolocation, salivary flow, etc. that can help forensic identification. | [117]/2018 |
| Advanced glycation end products (AGEs) | The pentosidine content of root in both healthy, pink, carious, diabetic, and heated teeth as well as the extent of AAR was determined. | All these disturbing factors could impact the efficiency of both methods. | [113]/2018 |
| Salivary α-amylase | The stability of salivary α-amylase was evaluated using qualitative and quantitative tests (RSID™-saliva and ELISA) | These immunological tests showed to be effective methods for human identification using degraded saliva samples with no enzymatic activity. | [121]/2019 |
| Dental DNA extracts | Dental DNA was extracted via two methods (classic pulverization and decalcification technique and an alternative protocol). | The new procedure could provide a higher amount of good quality DNA from the dental pulp in a short time. | [105]/2019 |
| Dental DNA epigenetic | Methylation and biogeography analyses on Y-Haplotype and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) were epigenetic traits used for estimating the age. | DNA methylation and mtDNA analyses could help oral implant investigations for human identification. | [103]/2019 |
| Saliva markers (mtDNA, bacterial DNA, and salivary α-amylase) | Saliva samples remaining at a crime scene were treated by three different degradation methods, and their markers’ detectability was compared. | Oral Gram+ bacterial DNA analysis and mtDNA typing are represented to be useful for human identification in forensic investigations. | [120]/2019 |
| Saliva-related literature | Systematically summarize the applications of saliva in forensic odontology. | Saliva was confirmed as an efficient and determinative forensic tool. | [122]/2019 |
| Degraded DNA from tooth samples | Three kits were examined for extracting the dental nuclear DNA. | The three-part analysis is shown to be efficient for extracting degraded DNA from tooth samples. | [98]/2020 |
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