COVID-19 Impact on Public Health, Environment, Human Psychology, Global Socioeconomy, and Education

Table 1

Nutritional support for COVID-19 patients.

Type of nutrition or diet	Food description	Reference
Fish oil	Lipid emulsions: a large amount of energy in a small volume; high proportions of omega-3 acids are precursors to anti-inflammatory mediators such as eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids	[18, 19]
Vitamin C	Vitamin C could have a double effect: antioxidant: protects cells and tissues in the body from oxidative damage and dysfunction; immunoprotective: inhibits the secretion of lactate produced by activated immune cells and protects the innate immunity from angiotensin 2	[20, 21]
Vitamin D	Vitamin D improves lung function in patients with asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, or in smokers, especially if there is a vitamin D deficiency at the start. Calcidiol (calcidiol, 25-hydroxycholecalciferol, or 25-hydroxyvitamin D) has reliable intestinal absorption (close to 100%) and can quickly restore serum concentrations because it does not require hepatic 25-hydroxylation. When calcitriol (a hormonal metabolite of vitamin D) enters the nuclear receptor, a deoxyribonucleic acid-binding protein interacts with regulatory sequences near target genes and recruits active chromatin complexes that genetically and epigenetically alter production transcriptionally.   Calcitriol regulates serum calcium concentration and, therefore, feeds back with parathyroid hormone. Vitamin D provides a physical barrier, natural cellular immunity through the induction of antimicrobial peptides, and a modulator of adaptive immunity against colds. Vitamin D reduces the production or expression of proinflammatory cytokines and increases the expression of anti-inflammatory cytokines by macrophages	[22–24]
Zinc	Improves immune function, improves resistance to infections, and increases the cytotoxic activity of natural killer cells, which can attack cells that have abnormal or unusual proteins in the plasma membrane. It is an anti-inflammatory agent, maintaining immune tolerance because it induces the development of Treg cells and attenuates the development of proinflammatory helper T cells 17 and helper T cells 9, in addition to being involved in the production of antibodies, in particular immunoglobulins G	[23, 25]
Vitamin A	Antiinfective vitamin	[26]
Required water	Maintaining adequate hydration remotes heart or renal failure and recent clinical history as diarrhea, vomiting, and electrolyte imbalances
Probiotics	Probiotics may be useful before intestinal dysbiosis with the decrease in bifidobacteria and lactobacilli. Micronutrient support of the intestine as well as the administration of a symbiotic (probiotics and prebiotics) restore balance and prevent the risk of secondary infection. In chronic inflammatory diseases, taking a high-concentration probiotic reduces the plasma levels of proinflammatory cytokines at the expense of those regulating inflammation, with changes in the fecal microbiota	[27]