Urea-triazone nitrogen (N) is a stable solution resulting from a controlled reaction in aqueous medium of urea, formaldehyde, and ammonia which contains at least 25% total N. This N source contains no more than 40%, nor less than 5%, of total N from unreacted urea and not less that 40% from triazone. All other N shall be derived from water-soluble dissolved reaction products of the above reactants. It is a source of slowly available N. The rate of mineralization of urea-triazone is about 66% that of urea after 8 days when incorporated in a Munjor sandy loam. Ammonia volatilization losses of N applied as urea-triazone were about 41% of those from urea on a Cecil sandy loam in the first week after application. N leaching losses through saturated Yolo loam columns of urea-triazone were about two thirds that of urea or nitrate N. This N source has proven to be a safer and more effective material for direct application on plant foliage. Tomato growth was enhanced with foliar application of urea-triazone relative to that obtained from ammonium nitrate or urea. The stability of this N source from potential losses via ammonia volatilization and nitrate leaching when soil applied is also documented by results from university trials.

John G. Clapp

Urea-Triazone N Characteristics and Uses

The Baltic is a large, brackish sea (4 x 105 km2) extending from 54&#8491;N to ~66&#8491;N, with a fourfold larger drainage area (population 8 x 107). Surface salinity (2 to 8 PSU) and hence biodiversity is low. In the last century, annual nutrient loads increased to 106 metric tons N and 5 x104 ton P. Eutrophication is evident in the N-limited south, where cyanobacteria fix 2 to 4 x 105 ton N each summer, Secchi depths have been halved, and O2-deficient bottom areas have spread. Production remains low in the P-limited north. In nutrient-enriched coastal areas, phytoplankton blooms, toxic at times, and filamentous macroalgae reduce amenity values. Loads need to be reduced of both N, to reduce production, and P, to limit N-fixing cyanobacterial blooms. When large N-load reductions have been achieved locally, algal biomass has declined. So far, P loads have been reduced more than N loads. If this continues, a P-limited Baltic proper may result, very different from previous N-limited conditions. Reaching the management goal of halved anthropogenic N and P loads at minimum cost will require better understanding of biogeochemical nutrient cycles, economic evaluation of proposed measures, and improved stakeholder participation.

R. Elmgren

U. Larsson

Nitrogen and the Baltic Sea: Managing Nitrogen in Relation to Phosphorus

Shallow lakes respond in different ways to changes in nutrient loading (nitrogen, phosphorus). These lakes may be in two different states: turbid, dominated by phytoplankton, and clear, dominated by submerged macrophytes. Both states are self-stabilizing; a shift from turbid to clear occurs at much lower nutrient loading than a shift in the opposite direction. These critical loading levels vary among lakes and are dependent on morphological, biological, and lake management factors. This paper focuses on the role of wetland zones. Several processes are important: transport and settling of suspended solids, denitrification, nutrient uptake by marsh vegetation (increasing nutrient retention), and improvement of habitat conditions for predatory fish. A conceptual model of a lake with surrounding reed marsh was made, including these relations. The lake-part of this model consists of an existing lake model named PCLake[1]. The relative area of lake and marsh can be varied. Model calculations revealed that nutrient concentrations are lowered by the presence of a marsh area, and that the critical loading level for a shift to clear water is increased. This happens only if the mixing rate of the lake and marsh water is adequate. In general, the relative marsh area should be quite large in order to have a substantial effect. Export of nutrients can be enhanced by harvesting of reed vegetation. Optimal predatory fish stock contributes to water quality improvement, but only if combined with favourable loading and physical conditions. Within limits, the presence of a wetland zone around lakes may thus increase the ability of lakes to cope with nutrients and enhance restoration. Validation of the conclusions in real lakes is recommended, a task hampered by the fact that, in the Netherlands, many wetland zones have disappeared in the past.

J.H. Janse

W. Ligtvoet

S. Van Tol

A.H.M. Bresser

A Model Study on the Role of Wetland Zones in Lake Eutrophication and Restoration

In the Netherlands, nutrient emissions from intensive animal husbandry have contributed to decreased species diversity in (semi) natural terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, pollution of groundwater, and possibly global warming due to N2O emissions. This paper presents the results of a modelling study presenting the impacts of both structural measures and improved farming practices on major nitrogen (N) fluxes, including NH3 and N2O emission, uptake, leaching, and runoff, in the Netherlands, using input data for the year 2000. Average annual fluxes (Gg N year&#x2013;1) for the year 2000 were estimated at 132 for NH3 emission (160 Gg NH3 year&#x2013;1), 28 for N2O emission, 50 for N inflow to groundwater, and 15 for N inflow to surface water at a total N input of 1046. At this input, nitrate (NO3) concentrations in groundwater often exceeded the target of 50 mg NO3 l&#x2013;1, specifically in well-drained sandy soils. The ammonia (NH3) emissions exceeded emission targets that were set to protect the biodiversity of nonagricultural land. Improved farming practices were calculated to lead to a significant reduction in NH3 emissions to the atmosphere and N leaching and runoff to groundwater and surface water, but these improvements were not enough to reach all the targets set for those fluxes. Only strong structural measures clearly improved the situation. The NH3 emission target of 30 Gg NH3 year&#x2013;1, suggested for the year 2030, could not be attained, however, unless pig and poultry farming is completely banned in the Netherlands and all cattle stay almost permanently in low emission stables.

Wim de Vries

Hans Kros

Oene Oenema

Modeled Impacts of Farming Practices and Structural Agricultural Changes on Nitrogen Fluxes in the Netherlands

Virtually complete nitrification of the available ammonium in soil and nitrification activity in the forest floor are important factors predisposing forests in the San Bernardino Mountains of southern California to nitrogen (N) saturation. As a result, inorganic N in the soil solution is dominated by nitrate. High nitrification rates also generate elevated nitric oxide (NO) emissions from soil. High-base cation saturation of these soils means that soil calcium depletion or effects associated with soil acidification are not an immediate risk for forest health as has been postulated for mesic forests in the eastern U.S. Physiological disturbance (e.g., altered carbon [C] cycling, reduced fine root biomass, premature needle abscission) of ozone-sensitive ponderosa pine trees exposed to high N deposition and high ozone levels appear to be the greater threat to forest sustainability. However, N deposition appears to offset the aboveground growth depression effects of ozone exposure. High nitrification activity reported for many western ecosystems suggests that with chronic N inputs these systems are prone to N saturation and hydrologic and gaseous losses of N. High runoff during the winter wet season in California forests under a Mediterranean climate may further predispose these watersheds to high nitrate leachate losses. After 4 years of N fertilization at a severely N saturated site in the San Bernardino Mountains, bole growth unexpectedly increased. Reduced C allocation below- ground at this site, presumably in response to ozone or N or both pollutants, may enhance the bole growth response to added N.

Mark E. Fenn

Mark A. Poth

A Case Study of Nitrogen Saturation in Western U.S. Forests

Today, finding data on agricultural nitrogen balances is quite easy. Calculations of such balances are carried out by most of the European countries as an indicator of environmental pollution attributable to the agricultural sector. In France, average values of agricultural nitrogen balances show an excess of 1.5 to 2 million tons of nitrogen. This excess is enormous. What would the balance of a country be if agricultural activity were stopped? In the following article, a country (France is used as an example) without agriculture is studied in order to assess its nitrogen balance. Using a previously published model describing nitrogen input and output of a given country, nitrogen flows are identified. Inputs include deposition, fixation, and products not intended for agricultural use. Outputs are reduced to zero if agriculture disappears (in France, agriculture is the only sector exporting products containing nitrogen). All flows are calculated considering the hypothesis of disappearance of agriculture. Nitrogen requirements to feed people and pets in France are estimated based on medical and veterinary data (recommended daily amounts for proteins and/or usual average consumption). Indeed, most of the food that nourishes the French population is produced nationally. If agriculture stops, it will be necessary to import food from foreign countries. Results show an unexpectedly high excess (for a country without agriculture having a structure similar to France: number of human beings and pets) of 1.5 million tons of nitrogen. An attempt to calculate an agricultural balance with the same data gives a result close to 3 million tons. Differences in French agricultural balances found in the literature can mainly be explained by values taken into account for deposition and fixation (values used here are at least 300,000 tons higher than values used by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). In conclusion, nitrogen excess in agriculture is partly due to social demand; agriculture does not only produce food but also includes many other functions (landscape management, employment, and preservation of culture, for example). As a consequence, efforts that do not involve suppressing agriculture should be made to figure out alternative ways of production.

M.-F. Slak

L. Commagnac

P. Pointereau

S. Larbouret

C. Lucas

S. Muller

Nitrogen Exchanges: Testing the Hypothesis of a Country without Agricultural Production

Substantial amounts of nitrate nitrogen NO3-N can leach from intensively grazed pasture in the northeast U.S. where there is about 30 cm of groundwater recharge, annually. Management options for reducing NO3-N leaching were evaluated for this environment using the Cornell Net Carbohydrate and Protein System Model and a recently developed nitrogen leaching index. Management options utilizing energy supplementation of grazing dairy cows could improve nitrogen efficiency within the cow, but would not necessarily reduce NO3-N leaching at the pasture scale if stocking rate was not controlled. The management option of using white clover to supply nitrogen to the pasture decreased NO3-N leaching, but produced less dry matter yield, which in turn reduced stocking rate. The economic returns of reducing NO3-N with these options need to be evaluated in light of milk prices and commodity and fertilizer nitrogen costs. At current prices and costs, the economic benefit from the energy supplementation options is substantial.

William L. Stout

James E. Delahoy

Laurence D. Muller

Louis S. Saporito

Evaluating Nitrogen Management Options for Reducing Nitrate Leaching from Northeast U.S. Pastures

The nitrogen (N) composition of streams draining eight upland regions of Britain was compared using monthly samples collected between April 1997 and April 1998. Stream samples were analysed for total N (TN), particulate N (PN), nitrate (NO3), ammonium (NH4), and dissolved organic nitrogen (DON). Concentrations of TN were small, generally less than 1.5 mg N l�1, were dominated by dissolved forms of N, and varied significantly between regions. NO3 accounted for the majority of variability. Concentrations of DON also varied between regions but to a smaller extent than those of NO3. There were considerable variations in TN fluxes between upland regions, which ranged between 3.8 and 16.1 kg N ha�1 year�1. The majority of the variation was due to NO3 fluxes, which were largest in regions receiving largest inputs of atmospheric N deposition and ranged between 1.4 and 13.5 kg N ha�1 year�1. Fluxes of DON ranged between 1 and 3.5 kg N ha�1 year�1, while fluxes of PN were generally less than 0.5 kg N ha�1 year�11, and NH4 fluxes ranged between 0.1 and 0.4 kg N ha�1 year�11. NO3 was the dominant fraction (47�84%) of N exported from all upland regions except the Highlands, where DON accounted for 52% of the TN flux. This study has shown that the DON fraction is an important component of the total N transported by upland streams in Britain.

P.J. Chapman

A.C. Edwards

Inorganic and Organic Losses of Nitrogen from Upland Regions of Britain: Concentrations and Fluxes

Published observations of organic nitrogen (N) compounds in precipitation go back almost a century. Several different methods have been used to measure both the total and ionic concentrations of N. There is therefore some uncertainty as to whether reported �organic N� is real, or simply the result of uncertainties in chemical analyses or inadequate sampling methods. We found that the materials from which the collector was made (polypropylene, steel, or glass) had no significant effect on the composition of dissolved organic N (DON). The use of a biocide was found to be very important during sampling and storage of samples before analysis. We set up a network of seven collectors across the U.K., from the Cairngorms to Dorset, all operating to the same protocol, and including a biocide. Samples were analysed centrally, using proven methods. Over 6 months, organic N contributed about 20% to the total N in U.K. precipitation, but with a large variation across the country. This means that current estimates of wet deposited N to the U.K., which are based only on the ammonium and nitrate concentrations, are too small. Organic N is not an artefact, but a real problem that needs to be addressed.

J.N. Cape

A. Kirika

A.P. Rowland

D.R. Wilson

T.D. Jickells

S. Cornell

Organic Nitrogen in Precipitation: Real Problem or Sampling Artefact?

Biculture of nonlegumes and legumes could serve as cover crops for increasing main crop yield, while reducing NO3 leaching. This study, conducted from 1994 to 1999, determined the effect of monocultured cereal rye (Secale cereale L.), annual ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum), and hairy vetch (Vicia villosa), and bicultured rye/vetch and ryegrass/vetch on N availability in soil, corn (Zea mays L.) yield, and NO3-N leaching in a silt loam soil. The field had been in corn and cover crop rotation since 1987. In addition to the cover crop treatments, there were four N fertilizer rates (0, 67, 134, and 201 kg N ha-1, referred to as N0, N1, N2, and N3, respectively) applied to corn. The experiment was a randomized split-block design with three replications for each treatment. Lysimeters were installed in 1987 at 0.75 m below the soil surface for leachate collection for the N0, N2, and N3 treatments. The result showed that vetch monoculture had the most influence on soil N availability and corn yield, followed by the bicultures. Rye or ryegrass monoculture had either no effect or an adverse effect on corn yield and soil N availability. Leachate NO3-N concentration was highest where vetch cover crop was planted regardless of N rates, which suggests that N mineralization of vetch N continued well into the fall and winter. Leachate NO3-N concentration increased with increasing N fertilizer rates and exceeded the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency&#x2019;s drinking water standard of 10 mg N l�1 even at recommended N rate for corn in this region (coastal Pacific Northwest). In comparisons of the average NO3-N concentration during the period of high N leaching, monocultured rye and ryegrass or bicultured rye/vetch and ryegrass/vetch very effectively decreased N leaching in 1998 with dry fall weather. The amount of N available for leaching (determined based on the presidedress nitrate test, the amount of N fertilizer applied, and N uptake) correlated well with average NO3-N during the high N leaching period for vetch cover crop treatment and for the control without the cover crops. The correlation, however, failed for other cover crops largely because of variable effectiveness of the cover crops in reducing NO3 leaching during the 5 years of this study. Further research is needed to determine if relay cover crops planted into standing summer crops is a more appropriate approach than fall seeding in this region to gain sufficient growth of the cover crop by fall. Testing with other main crops that have earlier harvest dates than corn is also needed to further validate the effectiveness of the bicultures to increase soil N availability while protecting the water quality.

S. Kuo

B. Huang

R. Bembenek

Effect of Winter Cover Crops on Soil Nitrogen Availability, Corn Yield, and Nitrate Leaching

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