Research Article
Antimicrobial Usage in Smallholder Poultry Production in Nigeria
Table 5
Characteristics of farmers who used antimicrobials (western method alone, or in combination with traditional method).
| | Characteristics | Location | Total N = 212 | χ 2 (df) | value | | Kebbi n = 65 | Nasarawa n = 41 | Rivers n = 26 | Kwara n = 28 | Imo n = 52 |
| | Primary influence on the decision to use antimicrobials | | | | | | | | | | Farmer group | 0 (0.0) | 3 (11.1) | 15 (55.6) | 0 (0.0) | 9 (33.3) | 27 | 320.19 (28) | ≤ 0.001 | | Feed/drug seller | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (9.1) | 0 (0.0) | 10 (90.9) | 11 | | Local merchants (day-old/brooded chicks) | 20 (62.5) | 2 (6.2) | 0 (0.0) | 10 (31.2) | 0 (0.0) | 32 | | Neighbors/friend | 1 (4.3) | 3 (13.0) | 3 (13.0) | 7 (30.4) | 9 (39.1) | 23 | | Veterinarian/animal health worker | 44 (75.9) | 4 (6.9) | 1 (1.7) | 3 (5.2) | 6 (10.3) | 58 | | Own experiences | 0 (0.0) | 3 (8.8) | 6 (17.6) | 8 (23.5) | 17 (50.0) | 34 | | Offtakers | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (100) | 1 | | Extension agent | 0 (0.0) | 26 (100.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 26 |
| | Secondary influence | | | | | | | | | | Farmer group | 5 (23.8) | 0 (0.0) | 5 (23.8) | 0 (0.0) | 11 (52.4) | 21 | 163.5 (28) | ≤ 0.001 | | Feed/drug seller | 6 (15.4) | 1 (2.6) | 9 (23.1) | 2 (5.1) | 21 (53.8) | 39 | | Local merchants (day-old/brooded chicks) | 10 (100) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 10 | | Neighbors/friend | 7 (14.6) | 16 (33.3) | 7 (14.6) | 9 (18.8) | 9 (18.8) | 48 | | Veterinarian/animal health worker | 33 (75.0) | 3 (6.8) | 5 (11.4) | 3 (6.8) | 0 (0.0) | 44 | | Own experiences | 3 (7.0) | 18 (41.9) | 0 (0.0) | 13 (30.2) | 9 (20.9) | 43 | | Offtakers | 0 (0.0) | 3 (75.0) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (0.25) | 0 (0.0) | 4 | | Extension agent | 1 (33.3) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (66.7) | 3 |
| | What has the most influence on the use of antimicrobials? | | | | | | | | | | Birds are dying | 21 (39.6) | 0 (0.0) | 21 (39.6) | 4 (7.6) | 7 (13.2) | 53 | 83.69 (16) | ≤ 0.001 | | The moment birds show any sign and symptom of disease | 34 (28.1) | 32 (26.4) | 1 (0.8) | 14 (11.6) | 40 (33.1) | 121 | | Make birds eat/grow more | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (100) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 1 | | Prevent sickness | 10 (31.3) | 9 (28.0) | 3 (9.4) | 10 (31.3) | 0 (0.0) | 32 | | Prevent wastage of antimicrobials drug that is about to expire | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 5 (0.0) | 5 |
| | Primary purpose of antimicrobials use | | | | | | | | | | Treatment | 10 (100) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 10 | 49.35 (8) | ≤ 0.001 | | Prevention | 11 (30.6) | 1 (2.8) | 12 (33.3) | 7 (19.4) | 5 (13.9) | 36 | | Treatment and prevention | 44 (26.5) | 40 (24.1) | 14 (8.4) | 21 (12.7) | 47 (28.3) | 166 |
| | Source of prescription | | | | | | | | | | Extension agent | 56 (51.4) | 39 (35.8) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (1.8) | 12 (11.0) | 109 | 173.98 (8) | ≤ 0.001 | | Self-prescription | 5 (7.1) | 1 (1.4) | 11 (15.5) | 15 (21.1) | 39 (54.9) | 71 | | Veterinarian/animal health worker | 4 (12.5) | 1 (3.1) | 15 (46.9) | 11 (34.4) | 1 (3.1) | 32 |
| | Source of drugs | | | | | | | | | | Feedstore | 3 (9.6) | 25 (80.7) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (3.2) | 2 (6.5) | 31 | 209.25 (12) | ≤ 0.001 | | Local vendor | 43 (67.2) | 1 (1.6) | 0 (0.0) | 5 (7.8) | 15 (23.4) | 64 | | Pharmacy/Chemist | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 6 (13.3) | 8 (17.8) | 31 (68.9) | 45 | | Veterinary drug store | 19 (26.4) | 15 (20.8) | 20 (27.8) | 14 (19.4) | 4 (5.6) | 72 |
| | Has the COVID-19 pandemic affected how you source for these drugs? | | | | | | | | | | Yes | 59 (67.0) | 25 (28.4) | 4 (4.5) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 88 | 171.56 (8) | ≤ 0.001 | | No | 5 (5.4) | 11 (11.8) | 9 (9.7) | 28 (30.1) | 40 (43.0) | 93 | | Not sure | 1 (3.2) | 5 (16.1) | 13 (41.9) | 0 (0.0) | 12 (38.7) | 31 |
| | Route of administration | | | | | | | | | | Food | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (11.1) | 0 (0.0) | 8 (88.9) | 9 | 114.29 (12) | ≤ 0.001 | | Water | 50 (44.6) | 5 (4.5) | 21 (18.8) | 27 (24.1) | 9 (8.0) | 112 | | Food and water | 15 (16.5) | 36 (39.6) | 4 (4.4) | 1 (1.0) | 35 (38.5) | 91 | | Injection | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 |
| | Pattern of usage | | | | | | | | | | 1 antimicrobial | 50 (34.3) | 39 (26.7) | 26 (17.8) | 13 (8.9) | 18 (12.3) | 146 | 61.93 (4) | ≤ 0.001 | | ≥2 antimicrobials | 15 (22.7) | 2 (3.1) | 0 (0.0) | 15 (22.7) | 34 (51.5) | 66 |
| | Frequency of antimicrobial use | | | | | | | | | | Occasionally | 65 (35.0) | 37 (19.9) | 25 (13.4) | 11 (5.9) | 48 (25.8) | 186 | 101.56 (8) | ≤ 0.001 | | Seldomly | 0 (0.0) | 4 (57.1) | 1 (14.3) | 1 (14.3) | 1 (14.3) | 7 | | Regularly | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 16 (84.2) | 3 (15.8) | 19 |
| | Do you complete the required treatment dosage? | | | | | | | | | | Yes | 27 (23.5) | 33 (28.7) | 25 (21.7) | 14 (12.2) | 16 (13.9) | 115 | 90.74 (8) | ≤ 0.001 | | No | 33 (52.4) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (1.6) | 29 (46.0) | 63 | | Does not know there is a dosage | 5 (14.7) | 8 (23.5) | 1 (3.0) | 13 (38.2) | 7 (20.6) | 34 |
| | Storage of antimicrobials | | | | | | | | | | Poultry shed | 2 (22.2) | 5 (55.6) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (11.1) | 1 (11.1) | 9 | 120.5
4 (12) | ≤ 0.001 | | Refrigerator | 0 (0.0) | 1 (6.2) | 15 (93.8) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 16 | | Somewhere in the house | 63 (34.1) | 35 (18.9) | 11 (5.9) | 27 (14.6) | 49 (26.5) | 185 | | Outside the house | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (100.0) | 2 |
| | Do you know the name of the antimicrobials used? | | | | | | | | | | Yes | 6 (8.9) | 11 (16.4) | 2 (3.0) | 2 (3.0) | 46 (68.7) | 67 | 143.44 (8) | ≤ 0.001 | | No | 49 (50.5) | 12 (12.4) | 21 (21.6) | 11 (11.3) | 4 (4.12) | 97 | | No, but I can describe it | 10 (20.8) | 18 (37.5) | 3 (6.2) | 5 (31.3) | 2 (4.2) | 48 |
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values in parenthesis are percentages (%).
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