A cost-effective and efficacious influenza vaccine for use in commercial poultry farms would help protect against avian influenza outbreaks. Current influenza vaccines for poultry are expensive and subtype specific, and therefore there is an urgent need to develop a universal avian influenza vaccine. We have constructed a live bacterial vaccine against avian influenza by expressing a conserved peptide from the ectodomain of M2 antigen (M2e) on the surface of <i  >Lactococcus lactis</i> (LL). Chickens were vaccinated intranasally with the lactococcal vaccine (LL-M2e) or subcutaneously with keyhole-limpet-hemocyanin conjugated M2e (KLH-M2e). Vaccinated and nonvaccinated birds were challenged with high pathogenic avian influenza virus A subtype H5N2. Birds vaccinated with LL-M2e or KLH-M2e had median survival times of 5.5 and 6.0 days, respectively, which were significantly longer than non-vaccinated birds (3.5 days). Birds vaccinated subcutaneously with KLH-M2e had a lower mean viral burden than either of the other two groups. However, there was a significant correlation between the time of survival and M2e-specific serum IgG. The results of these trials show that birds in both vaccinated groups had significantly (<svg     style="vertical-align:-0.1638pt;width:58.712502px;" id="M1" height="11.375" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 58.712502 11.375" width="58.712502"  xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
	
		
			<g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,.062,11.112)"><path id="x1D443" d="M619 482q0 -69 -40.5 -119t-96 -72.5t-118.5 -26.5h-44l-70 20l-31 -151q-14 -67 0.5 -83t89.5 -22l-5 -28h-287l8 28q65 7 81.5 22t29.5 83l79 398q12 56 0.5 70.5t-78.5 20.5l7 28h255q108 0 164 -43t56 -125zM524 478q0 141 -146 141q-25 0 -47 -8q-16 -6 -20.5 -13.5&#xA;t-10.5 -39.5l-43 -241q37 -13 83 -13q67 0 125.5 45t58.5 129z" /></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,15.582,11.112)"><path id="x3C" d="M512 -3l-437 233v51l437 233v-58l-378 -200v-2l378 -199v-58z" /></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,30.286,11.112)"><path id="x30" d="M241 635q53 0 94 -28.5t63.5 -76t33.5 -102.5t11 -116q0 -58 -11 -112.5t-34 -103.5t-63.5 -78.5t-94.5 -29.5t-95 28t-64.5 75t-34.5 102.5t-11 118.5q0 58 11.5 112.5t34.5 103t64.5 78t95.5 29.5zM238 602q-32 0 -55.5 -25t-35.5 -68t-17.5 -91t-5.5 -105&#xA;q0 -76 10 -138.5t37 -107.5t69 -45q32 0 55.5 25t35.5 68.5t17.5 91.5t5.5 105t-5.5 105.5t-18 92t-36 68t-56.5 24.5z" /></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,38.446,11.112)"><path id="x2E" d="M113 -12q-24 0 -39.5 16t-15.5 42q0 24 16 40.5t40 16.5t40 -16.5t16 -40.5q0 -26 -16 -42t-41 -16z" /></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,42.321,11.112)"><use xlink:href="#x30"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,50.481,11.112)"><path id="x35" d="M153 550l-26 -186q79 31 111 31q90 0 141.5 -51t51.5 -119q0 -93 -89 -166q-85 -69 -173 -71q-32 0 -61.5 11.5t-41.5 23.5q-18 17 -17 34q2 16 22 33q14 9 26 -1q61 -50 124 -50q60 0 93 43.5t33 104.5q0 69 -41.5 110t-121.5 41q-53 0 -102 -20l38 305h286l6 -8&#xA;l-26 -65h-233z" /></g>

		
	
</svg>) higher median survival times than non-vaccinated birds and that this protection could be due to M2e-specific serum IgG.

Kaleb A. Reese

Christopher Lupfer

Rudd C. Johnson

Georgi M. Mitev

Valerie M. Mullen

Bruce L. Geller

Manoj Pastey

A Novel Lactococcal Vaccine Expressing a Peptide from the M2 Antigen of H5N2 Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza A Virus Prolongs Survival of Vaccinated Chickens

<i>Background</i>. L-asparaginase is effective in treating canine and feline lymphoma, however chemotherapy poses a significant financial cost to veterinary clients, limiting therapy for many pets. Single dose vials result in significant drug wastage, and drug shortages limit consistent availability for pets. <i>Hypothesis</i>. <i>E. coli</i>-derived asparaginase retains enzymatic and antineoplastic activity in canine and feline lymphoma cells after cold storage. <i>Methods</i>. <i>E. coli</i>-derived asparaginase was cold-stored: refrigeration (7&#x2013;14 days) and freezing (14 days&#x2013;six months, one to three freeze/thaw cycles). Enzymatic activity of asparaginase was measured via a modified asparagine assay. Effects of cold-stored asparaginase on cell proliferation and cytotoxicity were measured in feline (MYA-1, F1B) and canine (17&#x2013;71, OSW) lymphoma cells. <i>Results</i>. Cold-stored <i>E. coli</i>-derived asparaginase retains antineoplastic activity in all four cell lines tested. Cold-stored <i>E. coli</i>-derived L-asparaginase depletes asparagine and retains enzymatic activity. Duration of refrigeration, duration of freezing, and number of freeze-thaw cycles have minimal effect on asparaginase enzyme activity. <i>Conclusions and Clinical Importance</i>. This study establishes a scientific basis for long-term cold storage of reconstituted <i>E. coli</i>-derived asparaginase that may result in better utilization of limited drug resources and improve financial feasibility of <i>E. coli</i>-derived asparaginase as a therapeutic option for pets with lymphoma.

Jackie M. Wypij

Holly C. Pondenis

<i>E. coli</i>-Derived L-Asparaginase Retains Enzymatic and Cytotoxic Activity <i>In Vitro</i> for Canine and Feline Lymphoma after Cold Storage

The prevalence and phylogenetic description of fungal organisms and their role as part of the intestinal ecosystem have not yet been studied extensively in dogs. This study evaluated the fungal microbiome of 19 dogs (12 healthy dogs and 7 dogs with acute diarrhea) using fungal tag-encoded FLX-Titanium amplicon pyrosequencing. Five distinct fungal phyla were identified, with <i>Ascomycota</i> (medians: 97.9&#x25; of obtained sequences in healthy dogs and 98.2&#x25; in diseased dogs) and <i>Basidiomycota</i> (median 1.0&#x25; in healthy dogs and median 0.5&#x25; in diseased dogs) being the most abundant fungal phyla. A total of 219 fungal genera were identified across all 19 dogs with a median (range) of 28 (4&#x2013;69) genera per sample. <i>Candida</i> was the most abundant genus found in both the diseased dogs (median: 1.9&#x25;, range: 0.2&#x25;&#x2013;38.5&#x25; of sequences) and healthy dogs (median: 5.2&#x25;, range: 0.0&#x25;&#x2013;63.1&#x25; of sequences). <i>Candida natalensis</i> was the most frequently identified species. No significant differences were observed in the relative proportions of fungal communities between healthy and diseased dogs. In conclusion, fecal samples of healthy dogs and dogs with acute diarrhea harbor various fungal genera, and their role in gastrointestinal health and disease warrants further studies.

M. Lauren Foster

Scot E. Dowd

Christine Stephenson

J&#xf6;rg M. Steiner

Jan S. Suchodolski

Characterization of the Fungal Microbiome (Mycobiome) in Fecal Samples from Dogs

This study investigated the effects of a skin protectant solution (dimethicone 2&#x25;) on clinical signs and skin barrier function in canine atopic dermatitis (AD). Eighteen dogs with AD were randomly divided into two groups, one received dimethicone and the other received the vehicle (cyclomethicone) on selected areas (pinnae, groin, and axillae) daily for 4 weeks. Owners and investigators were blinded regarding group allocation. Clinical efficacy was evaluated using a scoring system and skin barrier by measuring the transepidermal water loss. Twelve dogs completed the study (50&#x25; drop rate in the vehicle and 20&#x25; in the dimethicone). For clinical signs, analysis of variance showed an effect of time (<svg     style="vertical-align:-0.1638pt;width:66.875px;" id="M1" height="11.375" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 66.875 11.375" width="66.875"  xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
	
		
			<g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,.062,11.112)"><path id="x1D443" d="M619 482q0 -69 -40.5 -119t-96 -72.5t-118.5 -26.5h-44l-70 20l-31 -151q-14 -67 0.5 -83t89.5 -22l-5 -28h-287l8 28q65 7 81.5 22t29.5 83l79 398q12 56 0.5 70.5t-78.5 20.5l7 28h255q108 0 164 -43t56 -125zM524 478q0 141 -146 141q-25 0 -47 -8q-16 -6 -20.5 -13.5&#xA;t-10.5 -39.5l-43 -241q37 -13 83 -13q67 0 125.5 45t58.5 129z" /></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,15.582,11.112)"><path id="x3C" d="M512 -3l-437 233v51l437 233v-58l-378 -200v-2l378 -199v-58z" /></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,30.286,11.112)"><path id="x30" d="M241 635q53 0 94 -28.5t63.5 -76t33.5 -102.5t11 -116q0 -58 -11 -112.5t-34 -103.5t-63.5 -78.5t-94.5 -29.5t-95 28t-64.5 75t-34.5 102.5t-11 118.5q0 58 11.5 112.5t34.5 103t64.5 78t95.5 29.5zM238 602q-32 0 -55.5 -25t-35.5 -68t-17.5 -91t-5.5 -105&#xA;q0 -76 10 -138.5t37 -107.5t69 -45q32 0 55.5 25t35.5 68.5t17.5 91.5t5.5 105t-5.5 105.5t-18 92t-36 68t-56.5 24.5z" /></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,38.446,11.112)"><path id="x2E" d="M113 -12q-24 0 -39.5 16t-15.5 42q0 24 16 40.5t40 16.5t40 -16.5t16 -40.5q0 -26 -16 -42t-41 -16z" /></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,42.321,11.112)"><use xlink:href="#x30"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,50.481,11.112)"><use xlink:href="#x30"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,58.64,11.112)"><path id="x35" d="M153 550l-26 -186q79 31 111 31q90 0 141.5 -51t51.5 -119q0 -93 -89 -166q-85 -69 -173 -71q-32 0 -61.5 11.5t-41.5 23.5q-18 17 -17 34q2 16 22 33q14 9 26 -1q61 -50 124 -50q60 0 93 43.5t33 104.5q0 69 -41.5 110t-121.5 41q-53 0 -102 -20l38 305h286l6 -8&#xA;l-26 -65h-233z" /></g>

		
	
</svg>; day 0 <svg     style="vertical-align:-0.04095pt;width:10.1px;" id="M2" height="8.9125004" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 10.1 8.9125004" width="10.1"  xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
	
		
			<g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,.062,8.8)"><path id="x3E" d="M512 230l-437 -233v58l378 199v2l-378 200v58l437 -233v-51z" /></g>

		
	
</svg> day 28) and region (axillae <svg     style="vertical-align:-0.04095pt;width:10.1px;" id="M3" height="8.9125004" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 10.1 8.9125004" width="10.1"  xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
	
		
			<g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,.062,8.8)"><use xlink:href="#x3C"/></g>

		
	
</svg> groin <svg     style="vertical-align:-0.04095pt;width:10.1px;" id="M4" height="8.9125004" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 10.1 8.9125004" width="10.1"  xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
	
		
			<g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,.062,8.8)"><use xlink:href="#x3C"/></g>

		
	
</svg> pinnae) but no effect of group or group &#xd7; time interaction. For transepidermal water loss, analysis of variance showed only a main effect of region (axillae <svg     style="vertical-align:-0.04095pt;width:10.1px;" id="M5" height="8.9125004" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 10.1 8.9125004" width="10.1"  xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
	
		
			<g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,.062,8.8)"><use xlink:href="#x3E"/></g>

		
	
</svg> pinnae <svg     style="vertical-align:-0.04095pt;width:10.1px;" id="M6" height="8.9125004" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 10.1 8.9125004" width="10.1"  xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
	
		
			<g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,.062,8.8)"><use xlink:href="#x3E"/></g>

		
	
</svg> groin). Pearson found no correlation between transepidermal water loss and clinical scores. In this pilot study dimethicone had no significant effect on clinical signs and transepidermal water loss in canine atopic dermatitis.

C. Pellicoro

R. Marsella

K. Ahrens

Pilot Study to Evaluate the Effect of Topical Dimethicone on Clinical Signs and Skin Barrier Function in Dogs with Naturally Occurring Atopic Dermatitis

An ultrastructural comparison between the nasal cavities of healthy rabbits and those suffering from two forms of spontaneous infection with <i  >Pasteurella multocida</i> was undertaken. Twelve commercially produced rabbits of different ages and respiratory health status were divided into four groups: healthy from 0 to 21 days (G1, <svg     style="vertical-align:-0.1638pt;width:36.237499px;" id="M1" height="11.125" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 36.237499 11.125" width="36.237499"  xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
	
		
			<g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,.062,10.862)"><path id="x1D45B" d="M495 86q-46 -47 -87 -72.5t-63 -25.5q-43 0 -16 107l49 210q7 34 8 50.5t-3 21t-13 4.5q-35 0 -109.5 -72.5t-115.5 -140.5q-21 -75 -38 -159q-50 -10 -76 -21l-6 8l84 340q8 35 -4 35q-17 0 -67 -46l-15 26q44 44 85.5 70.5t64.5 26.5q35 0 10 -103l-24 -98h2&#xA;q42 56 97 103.5t96 71.5q46 26 74 26q9 0 16 -2.5t14 -11.5t9.5 -24.5t-1 -44t-13.5 -68.5q-30 -117 -47 -200q-4 -19 -3.5 -25t6.5 -6q21 0 70 48z" /></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,13.305,10.862)"><path id="x3D" d="M535 323h-483v50h483v-50zM535 138h-483v50h483v-50z" /></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,28.008,10.862)"><path id="x32" d="M412 140l28 -9q0 -2 -35 -131h-373v23q112 112 161 170q59 70 92 127t33 115q0 63 -31 98t-86 35q-75 0 -137 -93l-22 20l57 81q55 59 135 59q69 0 118.5 -46.5t49.5 -122.5q0 -62 -29.5 -114t-102.5 -130l-141 -149h186q42 0 58.5 10.5t38.5 56.5z" /></g>

		
	
</svg>); healthy from 23 to 49 days (G2, <svg     style="vertical-align:-0.1638pt;width:36.237499px;" id="M2" height="11.125" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 36.237499 11.125" width="36.237499"  xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
	
		
			<g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,.062,10.862)"><use xlink:href="#x1D45B"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,13.305,10.862)"><use xlink:href="#x3D"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,28.008,10.862)"><use xlink:href="#x32"/></g>

		
	
</svg>); healthy from 51 to 69 days (G3, <svg     style="vertical-align:-0.1638pt;width:36.237499px;" id="M3" height="11.125" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 36.237499 11.125" width="36.237499"  xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
	
		
			<g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,.062,10.862)"><use xlink:href="#x1D45B"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,13.305,10.862)"><use xlink:href="#x3D"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,28.008,10.862)"><use xlink:href="#x32"/></g>

		
	
</svg>); diseased rabbits with septicemia and the rhinitic form of <i  >P. multocida</i> infection (G4, <svg     style="vertical-align:-0.1638pt;width:36.237499px;" id="M4" height="11.125" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 36.237499 11.125" width="36.237499"  xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
	
		
			<g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,.062,10.862)"><use xlink:href="#x1D45B"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,13.305,10.862)"><use xlink:href="#x3D"/></g><g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,28.008,10.862)"><path id="x33" d="M285 378v-2q65 -13 102 -54.5t37 -97.5q0 -57 -30.5 -104.5t-74 -75t-85.5 -42t-72 -14.5q-31 0 -59.5 11t-40.5 23q-19 18 -16 36q1 16 23 33q13 10 24 0q58 -51 124 -51q55 0 88 40t33 112q0 64 -39 96.5t-88 32.5q-29 0 -64 -11l-6 29q77 25 118 57.5t41 84.5&#xA;q0 45 -26.5 69.5t-68.5 24.5q-67 0 -120 -79l-20 20l43 63q51 56 127 56h1q66 0 107 -37t41 -95q0 -42 -31 -71q-22 -23 -68 -54z" /></g>

		
	
</svg>). The main ultrastructural changes observed were a widening of the interepithelial spaces, increased activity and number of goblet cells, the formation of two types of vacuoles in epithelial cells, the degranulation and migration of heterophils between the epithelial cells, and the association of this migration with some of the other changes. No bacteria were observed adhering to the epithelium, and very few were observed free in the mucus. Scant inter-epithelial spaces were found in healthy rabbits, but they were not as large and numerous as those found in diseased animals. We discuss the origin and meaning of these changes but, we focus on the significance of the inter-epithelial spaces and goblet cells for the defense of the upper respiratory airways against the bacterium and its lipopolysaccharide.

Paula Esquinas

Luc&#xed;a Botero

Mar&#xed;a del Pilar Pati&#xf1;o

Carolina Gallego

Carlos Iregui

Ultrastructural Comparison of the Nasal Epithelia of Healthy and Naturally Affected Rabbits with <i>Pasteurella multocida</i> A

The nasal septa of fetal rabbits at 26&#x2009;days of gestation were harvested by cesarean section of the does while under anesthesia and then exposed to <i  >Bordetella bronchiseptica</i> or its lipopolysaccharide (LPS) for periods of 2 and 4&#x2009;hours.  A total of 240 explants were used. The tissues were examined using the Hematoxylin &#x26; Eosin technique. Then, semithin sections (0.5&#x2009;<svg     style="vertical-align:-3.56265pt;width:9.5625px;" id="M1" height="12.175" version="1.1" viewBox="0 0 9.5625 12.175" width="9.5625"  xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg">
	
		
			<g transform="matrix(.017,-0,0,-.017,.062,7.675)"><path id="x1D707" d="M538 96q-38 -45 -84 -76.5t-71 -31.5q-44 0 -15 117q12 49 18 89h-2q-99 -128 -163 -178q-36 -28 -70 -28q-26 0 -44 38h-2q-16 -69 -16 -129q0 -43 11 -75.5t24 -42.5l1 -6q-7 -12 -24.5 -23t-37.5 -11q-40 0 -40 76q0 52 35 202l94 407l78 24l5 -5q-32 -122 -72 -310&#xA;q-7 -33 0 -55t25 -22q36 0 105.5 75t107.5 145l32 146l75 26h10q-50 -197 -78 -347q-7 -38 6 -38q7 0 31 17t47 39z" /></g>

		
	
</svg>m) were stained with toluidine blue and examined with indirect immunoperoxidase (IPI) and lectin histochemistry. The most frequent and statistically significant findings were as follows: (1) cell death and increased goblet cell activity when exposed to bacteria and (2) cell death, cytoplasmic vacuolation and infiltration of polymorphonuclear leukocytes when exposed to LPS. The lesions induced by the bacterium were more severe than with LPS alone, except for the cytoplasmic vacuolation in epithelial cells. IPI stained the ciliated border of the epithelium with the bacterium more intensely, while LPS lectin histochemistry preferentially labeled the cytoplasm of goblet cell. These data indicate that <i  >B. bronchiseptica</i> and its LPS may have an affinity for specific glycoproteins that would act as adhesion receptors in both locations.

Andrew M. Middleton

Nhora Mart&#xed;nez

Stefany Romero

Interaction of <i>Bordetella bronchiseptica</i> and Its Lipopolysaccharide with <i>In Vitro</i> Culture of Respiratory Nasal Epithelium

Leptospirosis is an important zoonotic disease in the world and a real public health concern for many years in New Caledonia. A cross-sectional survey was carried out on domestic and wild animals from New Caledonia in April 2009. Blood samples were collected from 30 cattle, 29 deers, (<i>Cervus timorensis russa</i>), 25 horses, 51 dogs, and 8 cats and were tested for 23 serovars of pathogenic <i>Leptospira</i> species by the microscopic agglutination test. From the total number of 143 samples, 84 (58.7&#x25;) were found to be positive towards one or several serovars of pathogenic leptospires. According to the species, the positive sera were obtained from 43&#x25; of 30 cattle, 72&#x25; of 29 Rusa deer, 80&#x25; of 25 horses, and 43&#x25; of 51 dogs, and fromall of the 8 cats tested. This study shows the broad dispersion and the high prevalence of the different serogroups of pathogenic <i>Leptospira</i> species tested, particularly among deer and horses. The disease is endemic in domestic animals and concerns all the species.

C&#xe9;dric Roqueplo

Olivier Cabre

Bernard Davoust

Angeli Kodjo

Epidemiological Study of Animal Leptospirosis in New Caledonia

Uncontrolled or impaired immune and inflammatory responses in periparturient dairy cows are associated with increased incidence and severity of infectious diseases. The progressive development of oxidative stress during the transition from late gestation to peak lactation is thought to be a significant underlying factor leading to dysfunctional immune cell responses. Certain trace minerals, such as selenium (Se), can ameliorate oxidative stress and reduce the severity of several economically important diseases in dairy cattle including mastitis and metritis. Many of the health benefits of Se can be attributed to the antioxidant functions of selenoproteins. Changes in selenoprotein activity as a consequence of Se nutritional status can directly alter a number of critical cellular functions involved in the inflammatory response. A better understanding of how Se can optimize immune cell responses may facilitate the design of nutritional regimes that will reduce health disorders during the periparturient period.

Lorraine M. Sordillo

Selenium-Dependent Regulation of Oxidative Stress and Immunity in Periparturient Dairy Cattle

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<p><em>Veterinary Medicine International</em> publishes original research articles and review articles in all areas of veterinary research. Topics covered include the biological basis of disease, as well as diagnosis, prevention, treatment, and epidemiology.</p>


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Veterinary Medicine International | Hindawi

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Veterinary Medicine International publishes original research articles and review articles in all areas of veterinary research. Topics covered include the biological basis of disease, as well as diagnosis, prevention, treatment, and epidemiology.

Veterinary Medicine International