Grand Challenges as Educational Innovations in Higher Education: A Scoping Review of the Literature

Table 2

Literature characteristics.

Characteristic		n	%
Country
	USA	40	72.7
	United Kingdom	5	9.1
	Australia	4	7.3
	Netherlands	3	5.5
	Brazil	2	3.6
	Canada	2	3.6
	Sweden	2	3.6
	China	1	1.8
	Denmark	1	1.8
	Italy	1	1.8
	Luxembourg	1	1.8
	Singapore	1	1.8
	Switzerland	1	1.8
	Tanzania	1	1.8
Year
	Pre 2010	4	7.3
	2010	3	5.5
	2011	3	5.5
	2012	1	1.8
	2013	4	7.3
	2014	3	5.5
	2015	3	5.5
	2016	7	12.7
	2017	7	12.7
	2018	9	16.4
	2019	10	18.2
	2020	1	1.8
Discipline
	Multidisciplinary	26	47.3
	Engineering	18	32.7
	Chemistry	2	3.6
	Social Work	2	3.6
	Biology	1	1.8
	Biotechnology	1	1.8
	Business	1	1.8
	Geoscience	1	1.8
	Global Health	1	1.8
	Political Science	1	1.8
	Social Science	1	1.8
Grand Challenge Topics
	Environmental Sustainability	26	47.3
	Sustainable Energy	18	32.7
	Climate Change/Global Warming	16	29.1
	Food Insecurity	16	29.1
	Water Insecurity	16	29.1
	World Health	15	27.3
	Sustainable Cities and Communities	8	14.5
	World Peace	8	14.5
	Poverty	7	12.7
	Waste Management	6	10.9
	Quality Education	5	9.1
	Housing Crisis/Homelessness	4	7.3
	Improving nutrition	4	7.3
	Political Participation/Social Justice	4	7.3
	Natural Disasters	4	7.3
	Sustainable Transportation	4	7.3
	Increasing Exercise/ Obesity	3	5.5
	Sanitation in developing countries	3	5.5
	Population Growth/Immigration	2	3.6
	Family Violence	1	1.8
	Gender Inequality	1	1.8
	Reducing Drunk Driving	1	1.8
	Refugee Crisis	1	1.8
Students
	Undergraduate students	36	65.5
	Undergraduate and Graduate Students	10	18.2
	Graduate Students (Masters and PhD)	9	16.4
Types of literature
	Course descriptions	54	98.1
	Studies	25	45.5
	Quantitative studies	6	24
	Qualitative studies	8	32
	Mixed methods studies	10	40
	Unclear	1	4

Country: some literature had more than one country affiliation. Grand challenge topics: some literature looked at multiple grand challenge topics. Types of literature: some literature included both course descriptions and studies.