Physicochemical Characteristics and Nutritional and Biological Properties of Fish Oils in Cameroon: An Overview

Dongho Dongmo, Fabrice Fabien; Fogang Mba, Aymar Rodrigue; Manz Koule, Jules Christophe; Njike Ngamga, Fabrice Hervé; Simo Noutsa, Boris; Ngo Hagbe, Diana; Zokou, Ronice; Tamgue, Ousman; Sameza, Modeste Lambert; Tchoumbougnang, François; Ngono Ngane, Rosalie Anne; Gouado, Inocent

doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/7847288

Journal of Food Quality

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Extracts from Food with Medical Value: Composition and Function

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Review Article | Open Access

Volume 2023 | Article ID 7847288 | https://doi.org/10.1155/2023/7847288

Physicochemical Characteristics and Nutritional and Biological Properties of Fish Oils in Cameroon: An Overview

Fabrice Fabien Dongho Dongmo,¹Aymar Rodrigue Fogang Mba,¹Jules Christophe Manz Koule,¹Fabrice Hervé Njike Ngamga,²Boris Simo Noutsa,³Diana Ngo Hagbe,¹Ronice Zokou,²Ousman Tamgue,¹Modeste Lambert Sameza,¹François Tchoumbougnang,³Rosalie Anne Ngono Ngane,¹and Inocent Gouado¹

Academic Editor: Alessandro Di Cerbo

Received30 Mar 2023

Revised29 Sept 2023

Accepted16 Dec 2023

Published30 Dec 2023

Abstract

Due to their significant health benefits, fish oils have garnered increasing interest in recent decades. However, Cameroon’s fish oil market remains insignificant, and the few available products are imported, despite the country’s abundant marine resources. Additionally, research on Cameroonian fish oils is relatively recent and scarce. Therefore, this manuscript provides an overview of research on fish oils in Cameroon, focusing on their physicochemical characteristics, as well as their nutritional and biological properties. As of March 2023, 26 studies on fish oils in Cameroon have been published, with a focus on 23 species collected in the littoral, far-north, and west regions of Cameroon. Filets were the main parts used, and the Bligh Dyer and Soxhlet methods were the primary oil extraction techniques. Depending on the species, tissues, and extraction methods, oil contents ranged from 4.57% to 32.10% dry matter or yielded 0.36% to 66.83% wet weight. These oils generally meet recommended standards for markers of acidity and oxidation. Fatty acid profiles from 16 species showed a total of 48 fatty acids, including those that are beneficial to human health. Oils from eight species were found to significantly reduce weight, hyperlipidemia, hyperglycemia, hepatomegaly, and adipomegaly, while four species showed activity against bacteria responsible for food poisoning. Future work should include all fish species found in Cameroon, with a focus on by-products, and explore the physicochemical, functional, nutritional, and biological properties of these oils.

1. Introduction

Nutraceuticals are raw foods, functional foods, or dietary supplements that contain bioactive molecules and have the ability to provide health benefits beyond their nutritional value. Functional and bioactive compounds from natural sources such as terrestrial and marine plants, animals, or microorganisms have become sustainable solutions that offer new molecules with strong biological activity [1]. Consequently, global public awareness about the health and nutritional benefits of seafood diets is on the rise. Besides supporting human body growth and function, bioactive compounds in seafood also have therapeutic potential that help alleviate and manage disease conditions [2]. Fish occupies a prominent place among marine products and is considered an affordable source of protein and a source of nutraceutical importance [3]. Moreover, fish and other marine species comprise about half of the total biodiversity and are also a valuable source of novel bioactive compounds that improve human health.

Recent critical reviews on bioactive compounds and therapeutics from marine products and fish have been conducted [1–3]. These reviews revealed that fishes and fish products offer numerous nutritional and unique health benefits, which result from their nutrients and bioactive compounds. These compounds confer nutritional importance and therapeutic effects against chronic diseases such as diabetes, obesity, cancer, cardiovascular diseases, infection, inflammatory and oxidative stress-related ailments, hepatic and brain functions, and immune system disorders. Fishes contain protein, essential amino acids, vitamins, minerals, polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), and several other micronutrients and phytonutrients. Fish products are a cheap nutraceutical resource that can help solve nutritional problems, especially for the most vulnerable and low-income earners.

Increased consumption of fish should be encouraged, especially in developing communities where food security is a significant concern. There is also a need to increase awareness of the quality of proteins, omega-3 fatty acids, and other compounds inherent in fish and fish-based food products and nutraceuticals like fish oils. The composition of fish oils, from fatty acids to other compounds, has been reported [1–3]. Fatty acids in fish oils include PUFA (eicosapentaenoic acid/EPA, docosahexaenoic acid/DHA, arachidonic acid, etc.), monounsaturated fatty acids/MUFA (gondoic acid, palmitoleic acid, oleic acid, etc.), and saturated fatty acids/SFA (palmitic acid, stearic acid, etc.). PUFA in fish oils, reflected strongly by bioactive lipids, comprises both EPA and DHA which are known as omega-3 fatty acids. Other compositions include sterols, vitamins, minerals, polyphenols, and pigments such as carotenoids. These compounds also have therapeutic properties. Considering all these benefits of fish oils, substantial efforts must be made to promote them. This requires above all the control of their quality. As with any oil or fat for human or animal consumption, the evaluation of the quality of fish oils is done by determining their physicochemical characteristics which define the behavior and interactions of oils under various conditions. These properties are significant in nutrition and industry [4].

The interest in fish oil has been increasing in recent decades, as evidenced by the projected worldwide fish oil market size of USD 3.60 billion by 2030, growing at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 6% from USD 2,133 million in 2021 [4, 5]. Asia-Pacific has the largest share of the global fish oil market, while Africa has the smallest share [4, 5], with Cameroon’s fish oil market being very insignificant. Despite having a large hydrological network and a great diversity of marine products [6, 7], Cameroon relies heavily on foreign fish oils, as local production is estimated at 300,064 tons and fish available for consumption was about 18.10 kg/capita in 2019 [8].

Folack and Emene (unpublished data) have identified 41 target coastal and marine fish species belonging to 20 families in Cameroon, as presented in Table 1. We have in particular the Ariidae (1 species), the Belonidae (1 species), the Carangidae (8 species), the Clupeidae (3 species), the Cynoglossidae (2 species), the Dasyatidae (1 species), the Drepanidae (1 species), the Ephippididae (1 species), the Lutjanidae (5 species), the Mugilidae (2 species), the Ophichthidae (1 species), the Polynemidae (2 species), the Psettodidae (1 species), the Sciaenidae (5 species), the Scombridae (2 species), the Sparidae (1 species), the Sphyraenidae (1 species), the Sphrynidae (1 species), the Squalidae (1 species), and the Trichiuridae (1 species). The FAO English and French names of species, the local name, and the ecological habitat of these species are also given in Table 1. The species targeted by Folack and Emene represent only a part of the total fish production in Cameroon. In fact, there are many other species as well from the coasts and marine as from the freshwater and aquaculture such as Arius maculatus (Spotted catfish), Arius parkii (Machoiron), Cyprinus carpio (Red carp), Clarias gariepinus (African sharptooth catfish/“bapche”), Clupea harengus (Herring), Chrysicthys nigrodigitatus (Bagrid catfish), Coptodon camerounensis (Tilapia), Ephippion guttifer (Tétrodon), Heterotis niloticus (Kanga), Hepsetus odoe (African pike characin), Pellonula leonensis (Sardinelles nca), Pomadasys jubelini (Dorade grise/Grondeur/Sompat), Polypterus bichir bichir (Nile bichir), Psettias sebae (Petit disque/dentes/spares nca), Oreochromis niloticus (Carp), Semotilus atromaculatus (Creek chub), Silurus glanis (Wels catfish), Sphyraena barracuda (Brochet), Symphysadon discus (disc), and Trichius lepterus (Belt) [7, 9, 10].

Despite the high production and great diversity of local fish, there is a lack of research on fish oils from Cameroon, especially on their physicochemical characteristics and nutritional and biological properties. Substantial efforts should be made to study the oils from fishes caught in Cameroon to explore their potential applications in industry and human nutrition and health. Therefore, this article aims to provide an overview of the studies already conducted on Cameroonian fish oils, as well as to identify the gaps in the current knowledge and suggest areas for future research.

2. Outline of Physicochemical Characteristics and Nutritional and Biological Properties of Fish Oils

2.1. Physicochemical Characteristics

The physicochemical properties of oils refer to the physical and chemical characteristics that define their behavior and interactions under various conditions. These properties are significant in many industrial applications, including the food industry, chemical industry, pharmaceutical industry, and other fields [4].

Physical characteristics include boiling point, flash point, ignition point, melting point, solidification point, viscosity, plasticity, refractive index, specific gravity, solubility, unsaponifiability, emulsion capacity, and plasticity. The boiling point is the temperature at which the vapor pressure of the liquid oil sample equals the pressure surrounding the sample and the sample changes into a vapor. The flash point is defined as the temperature at which an oil sample, when heated under prescribed conditions, will flash when a flame is passed over the surface of the oil, but will not maintain ignition, for the ignition point is the temperature at which an oil sample will continue to burn on its own without the application of additional external heat. The melting point is the temperature at which an oil sample changes state from solid to liquid while the solidification point is the temperature at which the liquid phase of an oil sample is in approximate equilibrium with a relatively small portion of the solid phase. Refractive index which is a numerical expression related to the degree of saturation of the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light in a test substance is affected by factors such as free fatty acid, oxidation, and heat treatment. Concerning specific gravity, it is the ratio of the weight of a given volume of sample material at a specified temperature to the weight of the same volume of water at a specified temperature, providing a measure of relative density. The unsaponifiable refers to the proportion of oil that cannot be converted into soap using potassium hydroxide lye. This portion typically consists of substances such as sterols, tocopherols, hydrocarbons, and pigments. The emulsifying capacity is the capacity in the water/oil interface allowing the formation of emulsion, while the plasticity is the property that has a body to preserve its shape by resisting a certain pressure [4, 11].

Chemical characterization includes the evaluation of moisture and impurities, acid value (AcV), free fatty acids (FFA), saponification value (SaV), iodine value (IiV), thiobarbituric acid value (TaV), peroxide value (PeV), anisidine value (AnV), total oxidation value (Totox value), color, minerals, and heavy metals content among others [4, 11, 12]. AcV represents the number of milligrams of KOH required to neutralize the organic acids present in 1 gram of fat, and it is a measure of the free fatty acids (FFA) in the fat or oil. An increase in the FFA content of a sample of oil or fat indicates the hydrolysis of triglycerides [13]. SaV represents the weight of KOH required to saponify 1 gram of fat under specified conditions. It is a measure of the average molecular weight (or chain length) of all the fatty acids present in the sample as triglycerides. The higher the SaV, the lower the average length of fatty acids, the lighter the mean molecular weight of triglycerides, and vice versa [14]. IiV is a measure of the unsaturation of oil and fat and is expressed as the mass of iodine consumed by 100 grams of oil or fat. The higher the IiV, the more unsaturation is present in the fat [15]. The thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) are formed as a byproduct of lipid peroxidation, which is the degradation of fats and can be detected by the TBARS assay using thiobarbituric acid as a reagent [15]. PeV is defined as the reactive oxygen contents expressed in terms of meq of free iodine per kilogram of fat. It measures the extent to which an oil sample has undergone primary oxidation; the extent of secondary oxidation may be determined from the p-anisidine test. It is particularly useful in food quality testing as it can detect unsaturated aldehydes, which are most likely to generate unacceptable flavors [16]. According to the Codex Alimentarius Commission [17], acceptable values are ≤3 mgKOH/g for AcV, <5% oleic acid for FFA content, 179–200 mgKOH/g for SaV, ≤5 meqO₂/kg for PeV, ≤10 μmol MDA/kg for TaV, and ≤20 for AnV.

2.2. Nutritional and Biological Properties

Fish and fish products are well known to offer numerous/unique nutritional health benefits. These benefits are a result of their nutrients and bioactive compounds which confer nutritional importance and therapeutic effects. Clearly, fishes possess protein alongside several amino acids, dietary vitamins, minerals, PUFA, and several other micronutrients and phytonutrients. More so, fish products remain a cheap nutraceutical resource with the capacity to help solve nutritional problems, especially for the most vulnerable and low-income earners [1–3, 18]. Increased consumption of fish should be encouraged across communities. There is also the need for an increased campaign towards harnessing the potential of the quality nutrients that are inherent in fish, fish-based food products, and nutraceuticals from fish like fish oils. In fact, fish oils have nutritional importance and therapeutic effects against many health problems such as diabetes, obesity, cancer, cardiovascular diseases, infection, inflammatory and oxidative stress-related ailments, hepatic and brain functions, and immune system disorders [19]. These properties are closely linked to the impressive composition of fish oils.

The composition, from fatty acids to other compounds, and subsequently the health benefits of fish oils have been reported. Fatty acids comprised PUFA (eicosapentaenoic acid/EPA, docosahexaenoic acid/DHA, arachidonic acid, etc.), monounsaturated fatty acids/MUFA (gondoic acid, palmitoleic acid, oleic acid, etc.), and saturated fatty acids/SFA (palmitic acid, stearic acid, etc.) [1–3, 18]. Other compositions include sterols, vitamins, minerals, polyphenols, and pigments such as carotenoids [2, 3]. PUFA in fish oils, reflected strongly by bioactive lipids, comprises both EPA and DHA which are known as omega-3 fatty acids [1–3, 18, 19]. They are readily digestible for energy metabolism and several biological activities, including protection against chronic diseases. Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) is another vital omega-3 fatty acid that is precursory to EPA and DHA. Consumption of EPA and DHA lowers the development of coronary heart diseases via diverse mechanisms. They help protect against coronary heart disease by decreasing serum triglyceride, improving cardiac function, and reducing blood pressure and inflammatory responses. The anti-inflammatory properties of EPA and DHA occur via modulation of prostaglandin synthesis. Fatty acids reduce the amount of platelet buildup in the blood, thus narrowing the blood and reducing the propensity for blood clot formation. Otherwise, omega-3 fatty acids are vital for the growth of children. Particularly, DHA is essential for optimal brain and neurodevelopment in children, whereas EPA is essential for the improvement of overall cardiovascular health. Fatty acids are also involved in osmoregulation, nutrient assimilation, and nutrient transport [1–3, 19]. Besides fatty acids, other compounds of fish oils have therapeutic properties. Thus, sterols can lower the amount of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol in vivo [2, 3]. Phytosterols and pigments are also significant precursors of a number of vitamins, for example, ergosterol and carotenoids which are precursors of vitamin D2 and vitamin A, respectively. Vitamins produce a wide range of biological effects in the human body. For instance, vitamins A, D, and E are readily bioavailable in some fish oils. Vitamin A sustains normal growth, builds cells, and promotes good eyesight. Additionally, it can influence the biosynthesis of many proteins that regulate cell development/function or determine cell sensitivity to hormones and hormone-like factors, and impact the formation of hormones. Vitamin D, existing in fishes in the form of cholecalciferol, can abate vitamin D deficiency-related conditions, including rickets, osteomalacia, and osteoporosis. A link has also been established between vitamin D deficiency and diabetes, amplified proliferation of cancer cells, and increased incidence of autoimmune and cardiovascular diseases [2, 3, 18]. Some essential minerals found in fish oil like calcium, potassium, iron, sodium, iodine, selenium, magnesium, and zinc provide numerous health benefits, including important biochemical responses [2, 3]. Calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus are involved in teeth and bone formation, whereas sodium and potassium help in nerve impulse transmission and electrolyte balance maintenance. Iron is a component of hemoglobin that transports oxygen around the body. Zinc acts as a cofactor in the activity of many enzymes that are essential for metabolism, DNA and protein synthesis, digestion, nerve function, the development and function of immune cells, cell growth, and division. Iodine is essential in making thyroid hormones that control human growth and development. Otherwise, carotenoids can occur in various forms in fish. Typical examples include beta-carotene, lutein, alpha- and beta-doradexthins, canthaxanthin, and astaxanthin. The most common appears to be astaxanthin, which is able to prevent eye macula (lutein and zeaxanthin) that comes from damaging blue lights and oxidative stress [2, 3].

3. Studies on Fish Oils in Cameroon

The literature search was carried out in the databases of PubMed, Google Scholar, and Web of Science using search terms (keywords) such as Cameroon, fish, fish oil/lipid, physicochemical characteristics, composition, biological properties, and health benefits. Only studies conducted on fish from Cameroon and dealing with at least one aspect of fish oils were included. Overall, it was noted that despite the diversity of fishes in Cameroon, there have been very few recent studies on fish oils. As shown in Table 2, only 26 studies have investigated fish oils in Cameroon as of March 2023.

The first study was conducted by Tenyang et al. who investigated the chemical characteristics and fatty acid profile of oil from Arius maculatus collected in the Douala fish market [45]. A year later, Tenyang et al. were also interested in the fatty acid profiles of A. maculatus, Clupea harengus, Cyprinus carpio, Semotilus atromaculatus, Symphysadon discus, and Trichiurus lepturus collected in Youpowé and Essingué–Douala [44]. In 2016, a total of three studies were published, particularly by Njinkoue et al. who investigated the fatty acid profile of oils from Pseudotolithus elongatus and Pseudotolithus typus collected in July 2014 at the Douala fishing port [41]. Tenyang et al. studied the fatty acid profile of oils from Chrysicthys nigrodigitatus, Heterotis niloticus, Liza falcipinnis, and Oreochromis niloticus collected in the Maga fish market (Far West region) [42]. Tiwo et al. also investigated the composition of Clarias gariepinus, C. carpio, H. niloticus, and O. niloticus collected in Batié (West region). Similarly, in 2017, three studies were published [43]. The first, conducted by Djimbie et al. focused on the fatty acid profile of oils extracted from O. niloticus collected in November 2013, March, and July 2014 in the Nkam River–Yabassi [38]; the second study, carried out by Njinkoue et al. explored the hypolipemiant effect of oil from Pseudotolithus senegalensis collected in the Douala fishing port [39]. Lastly, Tenyang et al. conducted a study on the chemical characterization and fatty acid profile of oil from A. maculatus collected in the Douala fish market [40]. Four studies were conducted in 2018, including Justin et al. who studied the chemical characteristics and fatty acid profile of oil from C. nigrodigitatus from the Nkam River [34]; Simplice et al. who investigated the chemical characteristics, fatty acid profile, and antibacterial activity of oils from C. nigrodigitatus and H. odoe from the Nkam River [35]; Tenyang et al. who studied the chemical characteristics and fatty acid profile of oil from C. harengus collected in April 2014 in Youpwe [36]; and Cristelle et al. who investigated the effect of C. carpio, H. niloticus, O. niloticus, and Silurus glanis from Batié on the growth of Wistar rats [37]. In 2019, only one study was available, which was conducted by Tenyang et al. on the chemical characteristics and fatty acid profile of oil from C. carpio from Youpwe. In 2020 [33], a total of five studies were published: Manz Koule et al. conducted research on the chemical characteristics and antihyperlipidemic potential of oil from Ilisha africana collected at the Douala fishing port [28]; Nchoutpouen et al. [29] researched the hypolipemiant effect of oil from Ethmalosa fimbriata collected at the Douala fishing port; Simo et al. [30] studied the chemical characteristics and antibacterial activity of oil from Lutjanus dentatus from Youpwe; and Tenyang et al. conducted two studies on the chemical characteristics and fatty acid profile of oil from L. falcipinnis and O. niloticus collected at the Maga fish market [31, 32]. In 2021, four studies were conducted: Dama et al. researched the composition of P. elongatus, P. senegalensis, and P. typus from Youpwe [23]; Christophe Manzkoule et al. studied the chemical characteristics of oils from I. africana and Sardinella maderensis from the Douala fishing port [24]; and Ndômbôl et al. conducted two studies on the chemical characteristics of oils from fish by-products collected at Douala markets [25, 26]; Njiké Ngamga et al. studied the antibacterial activity of oil from of Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus [27]. In 2022, two studies were available: Noutsa et al. researched the chemical characteristics, fatty acid profile, and antibacterial activity of oil from Fontitrygon margarita collected in Youpwe [21]; and Tenyang et al. conducted research on the chemical characteristics of oil from Polypterus bichir bichir collected at the Maga fish market in July 2019 [22]. As of March 2023, only one study done by Manz et al. on chemical characteristics of oil from Arius parkii, C. carpio, E. fimbriata, I. africana, and S. maderensis was available [20].

To summarize, a total of 23 fish species have been studied to date, with a focus on Arius maculatus, Arius parkii, Cyprinus carpio, Clarias gariepinus, Clupea harengus, Chrysicthys nigrodigitatus, Ethmalosa fimbriata, Fontitrygon margarita, Heterotis niloticus, Hepsetus odoe, Ilisha africana, Lutjanus dentatus, Liza falcipinnis, Oreochromis niloticus, Polypterus bichir bichir, Pseudotolithus elongatus, Pseudotolithus senegalensis, Pseudotolithus typus, Semotilus atromaculatus, Symphysodon discus, Silurus glanis, Sardinella maderensis, and Trichiurus lepturus. The majority of samples were collected in the Littoral Region, with nine studies conducted at Douala fish markets, seven studies conducted in Youpwe, and three studies conducted in the Nkam River. The other places of sampling were the Maga fish market for four studies and Batié for two studies. Oils were mostly extracted from fish filets (21 studies), with the remaining samples obtained from by-products such as adipose tissue, liver, viscera, and gills. The extraction methods used were the Bligh and Dyer method for 16 studies, Soxhlet using hexane as the solvent for eight studies, cooking-pressing at 95°C for four studies, and drying-pressing at 45°C, exudation at 45°C, and maceration for one study each.

4. Oil Content and Physicochemical Characteristics of Fish Oils Studied in Cameroon

Table 3 summarizes the results obtained from the studies listed above in relation to the oil content/oil extraction yield and physicochemical characteristics of the fish oils obtained. Oil can be extracted from various parts of fish, including the body/flesh/filet, as well as by-products such as livers, viscera, backbones, and heads. Fish body oil accounts for up to 97% of the total marine oil supply, and the oil content and quality vary depending on the part used [12]. Additionally, many other factors can influence the oil content and quality, such as fish species, size, age, season, water temperature, and geographic location [46, 47]. Moreover, the oil extraction yield and quality depend on the extraction method used [12].

Regarding the studies conducted in Cameroon (Table 3), Tenyang et al. found that the filet of Arius maculatus had an oil content of 23.02% DM (dry matter) when extracted with the Bligh and Dyer method [40, 44, 45]. Manz Koule et al. obtained an oil extraction yield by the Bligh and Dyer method of 2.55% WW (wet weight) from the filet of Arius parkii, while for the filet of Cyprinus carpio, an extraction yield of 1.78% WW was obtained by the same method [28]. Furthermore, using the same extraction method, Cristelle et al. obtained an oil content of 15.32% DM and 8.05% DM, respectively, for the filet of Clarias gariepinus [37, 43], while Tenyang et al. showed that the filet of Clupea harengus had an oil content of 10.20% DM [36, 44]. For the filet of Chrysicthys nigrodigitatus, Tenyang et al. [42] and Njiké Ngamga et al. [27] obtained an oil content of 30.34% DM and 32.10% DM, respectively, with the Bligh and Dyer method, while Justin et al. obtained an oil content of 22.06% DM with the Soxhlet method [34], and Mouokeu et al. obtained oil extraction yields of 6.52% WW and 5.80% WW with the cooking-pressing and maceration methods, respectively [35]. For Ethmalosa fimbriata filet, Manz Koule et al. noted an oil extraction yield of 2.79% WW, which was obtained using the Bligh and Dyer method [28]. Simo et al. obtained an oil extraction yield of 14.49% WW with cooking-pressing and 16.90% WW with exudation for the liver of Fontitrygon margarita [21]. Tenyang et al. obtained an oil content of 5.52% DM from the filet of Heterotis niloticus with the Soxhlet method [42], while Cristelle et al. obtained an oil content of 4.20% DM with the Bligh and Dyer method [37, 43]. Simplice et al. obtained an oil extraction yield of 4.31% WW from the filet of Hepsetus odoe with the cooking-pressing method [35]. Concerning the Ilisha africana filet, Manz Koule et al. found an oil content of 6.41% DM using Soxhlet extraction [28], while the Bligh and Dyer method yielded an oil content of 13.46% DM, with an oil extraction yield of 3.69% WW [24]. Simo et al. worked with Lutjanus dentatus adipose tissue and obtained oil extraction yields of 66.83% WW with cooking-pressing and 55.50% WW with drying-pressing [30]. For Liza falcipinnis filet, Tenyang et al. reported an oil content of 18.88% DM using Soxhlet extraction [42], while the Bligh and Dyer method yielded an oil content of 19.48% DM in a later study [31]. Njinkoue et al. obtained an oil content of 21.76% DM using Soxhlet extraction for Oreochromis niloticus filet [39], while the Bligh and Dyer method yielded an oil content of 4.57% DM according to Tiwo et al. [43], 22.00–23.40% DM according to Djimbie et al. [38], 5.57% DM according to Cristelle et al. [37], 8.71% DM according to Teyang et al. [32], and 20.50% DM according to Tenyang et al. [31]. Tenyang et al. obtained an oil content of 5.74 WW using the Bligh and Dyer method for Polypterus bichir bichir filet [22]. Njikoue et al. reported oil contents of 0.36% EP and 0.46% EP for Pseudotolithus elongatus and Pseudotolithus typus filet, respectively, using Soxhlet extraction [41], while Dama et al. found oil contents of 1.23% EP for Pseudotolithus elongatus, 0.43% EP for Pseudotolithus senegalensis, and 0.50% EP for Pseudotolithus typus using the Bligh and Dyer method [23]. Ndômbôl et al. showed that the viscera and gills of Pseudotolithus typus had an oil content of 15.11% DM using Soxhlet extraction [25]. Tenyang et al. reported oil contents of 8.90% DM, 11.35% DM, and 20.89% DM for filet of Semotilus atromaculatus, Symphysadon discus, and Trichius lepterus, respectively [44], while Cristelle et al. found an oil content of 6.11% DM for filet of Silurus glanis [37]. Christophe Manzkoule et al. reported an oil content of 13.79% DM using the Bligh and Dyer method for Sardinella maderensis filet [24], with an oil extraction yield of 2.72% WW [20]. Ndômbôl et al. found an oil content of 20.30% DM from fish by-products using the Soxhlet method [26].

Regarding the physicochemical properties of fish oils, as indicated in Table 3, only chemical characteristics, particularly markers of acidity (AcV, FFA, and SaV) and oxidation (IiV, TaV, PeV, AnV, and Totox value) are usually analyzed for studies conducted in Cameroon. Tenyang et al. [40, 44, 45] demonstrated that the oil extracted from the fillet of Arius maculatus using the Bligh and Dyer method had an acceptable FFA content (3.30–3.60% oleic acid) and a PeV (7.20–7.24 meqO₂/kg) higher than the standard. For the oil extracted from the fillet of Arius parkii, Manz Koule et al. [28] found that the Bligh and Dyer method had an acceptable AcV (1.14 mgKOH/g), TaV (1.26 µmol MDA/kg), PeV (1.19 meqO₂/kg), and AnV (0.73), but a low SaV (108.83 mgKOH/g) compared to acceptable values. The oils obtained by the Bligh and Dyer method from the fillet of Cyprinus carpio were acceptable in terms of FFA content (1.35% oleic acid) [33], PeV (2.08–3.77 meqO₂/kg) [29, 41], AcV (1.45 mgKOH/g), TaV (0.87 µmol MDA/kg), and AnV (0.66), but low SaV (121.07 mgKOH/g) [20]. Devi and Khatkar [11, 45] showed that the oil extracted from Clupea harengus fillet using the Bligh and Dyer method met the standards for FFA content (3.73% oleic acid) and PeV (2.33 meqO₂/kg). In the case of Chrysicthys nigrodigitatus fillet, the oil obtained by Soxhlet [34] had a higher FFA content (10.25% oleic acid) and PeV (22.02 meqO₂/kg) than the standard. Likewise, the oils obtained by cooking-pressing and maceration [35] met the standards for TaV (6.72–7.50 µmol MDA/kg) and PeV (4.49 meqO₂/kg) for both, while AcV (0.70 mgKOH/g) and AnV (9.13) were corrected for the oil obtained by cooking-pressing, but higher than the standards for the oil obtained by maceration (AcV 7.33 mgKOH/g; AnV 35.43). Additionally, the iodine value (IiV) was higher for both oils obtained by cooking-pressing and maceration (82.64–96.28 g I₂/100 g) [35] compared to that obtained by Soxhlet (56.37 gI₂/100 g) [34]. In the study conducted by Manz Koule et al. [28] on Ethmalosa fimbriata fillet, the Bligh and Dyer method was used to extract oil, which showed low SaV (96.04 mgKOH/g) compared to standards but respected the standards for AcV (1.04 mgKOG/g), TaV (1.13 µmol MDA/kg), PeV (1.28 meqO₂/kg), and AnV (0.76).

Noutsa et al. [21] extracted oils from Fontitrygon margarita liver using cooking-pressing and exudation methods and achieved results that were within the standards for AcV (2.15–2.30 mgKOH/mg), TaV (2.36–3.20 µmol MDA/kg), PeV (3.34–3.57 meqO₂/kg), AnV (2.85–3.32), and Totox value (9.04–10.21) for both methods. The IiV did not significantly vary according to the extraction method (102.42–106.65 g I₂/100 g). In addition, Simplice et al. [35] obtained oil from Hepsetus odoe fillet using the cooking-pressing method, which had acceptable levels of AcV (0.98 mgKOH/g), TaV (6.59 µmol MDA/kg), and AnV (5.05), but a high PeV (6.22 meqO₂/kg).

Regarding Ilisha africana fillet, Christophe Manzkoule et al. [24, 28] extracted oils using Soxhlet and Bligh and Dyer methods and achieved results that were within the standards for AcV (1.04–2.30 mgKOH/g), SaV (186.82–190.26 mgKOH/g), TaV (0.65–6.67 µmol MDA/kg), AnV (0.63–3.19), and Totox value (3.99–15.07), but had high PeV (6.03–8.43 meqO₂/kg). The oil obtained by Soxhlet seemed to have a higher IiV compared to those obtained by the Bligh and Dyer method.

Simo et al. [30] extracted oils from Lutjanus dentatus adipose tissue using cooking-pressing and drying-pressing methods and achieved results that were within the standards for TaV (1.99–2.21 µmol MDA/kg), but had high AcV (3.24–3.73 mgKOH/g), PeV (6.56–9.76 meqO₂/kg), and AnV (37.85–40.94).

Additionally, the IiV of the oil obtained by cooking pressing (102.47 g I₂/100 g) was higher than that obtained by drying-pressing (91.55 gI₂/100 g). In the case of Liza falcipinnis filet, the oil obtained by the Bligh and Dyer method [31] had normal FFA content (1.91% oleic acid) and Totox value (15.63) but a high PeV (7.82 meqO₂/kg). For Oreochromis niloticus filet, the oil obtained by the Bligh and Dyer method [31] respected standards for FFA content (2.53% oleic acid), PeV (4.19 meqO₂/kg), and Totox value (8.59). Tenyang et al. [22] obtained an oil extract from Polypterus bichir bichir using the Bligh and Dyer method that respected standards for AcV (0.69 mgKOH/g), TaV (0.30 µmol MDA/kg), and PeV (2.50 meqO₂/kg). Ndômbôl et al. [25] showed that oil from the viscera and gills of Pseudotolithus typus extracted by Soxhlet had high AcV (49.9 mgKOH/g) compared to standards but normal PeV (0.52 meqO₂/kg), AnV (0.27), and Totox value (1.30). Furthermore, oil from Sardinella maderensis filet obtained by the noted Bligh and Dyer method [35, 42] respected standards for AcV (1.10–1.38 mgKOH/g), SaV (192.12–194.05 mgKOG/g), TaV (0.83–5.15 µmol MDA/kg), PeV (1.67–5.96 meqO₂/kg), AnV (0.68–3.55), and Totox value (4.52–15.48). The iodine value (148.73–180.45 g I₂/100 g) was higher with the oil obtained by the Soxhlet method compared to that obtained by the Bligh and Dyer method, as noted above with Ilisha africana. Also, Ndômbôl et al. [26] obtained oil from fish by-products extracted with the Soxhlet method, which respected standards for PeV (0.79 meqO₂/kg), AnV (0.52), and Totox value (2.10), but had a high AcV (78.95 mgKOH/g).

5. Nutritional Properties of Fish Oils Studied in Cameroon

The nutritional properties of fish oils depend on various factors such as their caloric value, mineral and vitamin content, particularly vitamins A and D, phytochemical compounds, and lipid composition, including lipid classes such as neutral lipids, glycolipids, and phospholipids, as well as fatty acid profiles [12, 48]. In addition, sensory acceptability and toxicity, especially heavy metal content, should also be considered. However, studies on fish oils in Cameroon have focused only on fatty acid profiles, and to the best of our knowledge, other nutritional parameters have not been investigated.

Fatty acid profiles have been established for 16 out of 23 fish species whose oil has been studied in Cameroon, including Arius maculatus, Cyprinus carpio, Clupea harengus, Chrysicthys nigrodigitatus, Fontitrygon margarita, Heterotis niloticus, Hepsetus odoe, Ilisha africana, Liza falcipinnis, Oreochromis niloticus, Pseudotolithus elongatus, Pseudotolithus typus, Semotilus atromaculatus, Symphysadon discus, Sardinella maderensis, and Trichius lepterus (see Table 4). In all these species, a total of 48 fatty acids have been identified, including 16 saturated fatty acids (SFA), 15 monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), and 17 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA). Pseudotolithus typus has the highest number of fatty acids (29) among the studied species, and the fatty acid content varies between different species.

Table 4 shows that Arius maculatus has a high content of SFA (52.63% total fatty acids) compared to other species. Palmitic acid (16:0) is the main fatty acid, with content varying from 6.50% to 34.05%, where Pseudotolithus typus has the lowest content and Chrysicthys nigrodigitatus has the highest. Stearic acid follows with a content ranging from 2.40% to 13.20%, where Pseudotolithus elongatus is the richest species and Fontitrygon margarita is the poorest. Myristic acid (14:0) ranks third and varies from 1.25% to 11.30%, where Liza falcipinnis is the richest species and Pseudotolithus typus is the poorest. Additionally, we note the presence of fatty acids that are not commonly found in fish oils, such as 15-methyl-hexadecanoic acid (15-methyl-16:0), margaric acid (17:0), arachidic acid (20:0), and lignoceric acid (24:0).

Regarding MUFA (Table 4), Fontitrygon margarita (55.97%) and Arius maculatus (20.70%) are the richest and poorest species in MUFA, respectively. There are several series of MUFA, namely omega 3 (18:1ω3), omega 7 (16:1ω7, 17:1ω7, 18:1ω7), and omega 9 (16:1ω9, 18:1ω9, 20:1ω9). Oleic acid (18:1ω9) and palmitoleic acid (16:1ω7) are the most abundant. These two acids result from the desaturation of palmitic and stearic acids by delta desaturase 9 [49]. Furthermore, MUFA is produced by the elongation and desaturation of PUFA.

The PUFA are mainly composed of ω3 acids rather than ω6. As shown in Table 4, linoleic acid (18:2ω6) is the main acid among the ω6 series. Pseudotolithus typus has the highest PUFA content (33.41%) among all species studied. Oreochromis niloticus is the richest species in ω6 PUFA (16.79%), while Pseudotolithus typus has the lowest linoleic acid content (0.31%). Arachidonic acid (20:4ω6) is the second most abundant PUFA in the ω6 series. Among the PUFA of the ω3 series, linolenic acid (18:3ω3), EPA (20:5ω3), and DHA (22:6ω3) are the most prevalent. Liza falcipinnis is the richest species in linolenic acid (13.10%), while Pseudotolithus typus is the richest species in EPA (10.47%) and DHA (7.47%). The high richness in ω3 could be due to the fact that some species feed on phytoplankton, which is rich in ω3 [49]. Additionally, the ω-3/ω-6 ratio was greater than 1 for all species except for Oreochromis niloticus. The highest ratio was noted for Pseudotolithus typus (6.24), followed by Sardinella maderensis (4.58) and Ilisha africana (4.27).

6. Biological Properties of Fish Oils Studied in Cameroon

Fish oil is associated with various outcomes that impact both physical and mental health, particularly inflammation, oxidative stress, obesity, metabolic diseases such as dyslipidemia and diabetes, coronary artery diseases, liver dysfunctions like nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, eye diseases such as age-related macular degeneration, loss of muscle mass and function, osteoarthritis pain, bone diseases, rheumatoid arthritis, brain dysfunctions, mental disorders such as depression and anxiety, autism, cancers, and infectious diseases [20, 30, 32]. These biological properties of fish oils are related to their composition, primarily their fatty acid profiles.

As previously demonstrated, fish oils from Cameroon contain numerous fatty acids, some of which possess biological properties. For instance, stearic acid, a type of saturated fatty acid (SFA), is present in small amounts and has various beneficial effects on the body, such as protecting the cardiovascular system and possessing anticarcinogenic, antitumor, and hypoglycemic properties [50]. Myristic acid, another type of SFA, possesses biological properties such as intracellular signaling and suppressing tumors, oncogenes, and viral proteins [51]. In regards to monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA), palmitoleic acid has hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, and anti-inflammatory properties [52]. It also has a role in wound healing by playing an antiseptic role due to being a constituent of sebum [53]. Oleic acid is involved in bile secretions, absorption, and digestion of lipids, as well as regulating blood pressure [54]. As for polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), linoleic and arachidonic acids are precursors of long-chain n-6 PUFA implicated in cardiovascular disorders such as thrombosis and arteriosclerosis. Arachidonic acid is the precursor of series 2 autacoids, aids in the blood clotting process, and binds to endothelial cells during wound healing. Including studied species that are rich in them in the human diet could aid in the wound healing process for consumers [42]. The presence of ω3 suggests beneficial health effects for consumers. Indeed, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) have anti-inflammatory properties through their conversion into resolvins, which allow the synthesis of protectins and maresins [55]. Moreover, EPA and DHA have preventive effects on human coronary heart disease, combat type 2 diabetes and fatty liver disease, and possess neuroprotective, antioxidant, and hypotensive properties [56]. EPA preserves carbohydrate homeostasis and inhibits the expansion of adipose tissue [57], while DHA is essential for the development of the fetal brain and ocular retina [58]. Additionally, a ω3/ω6 ratio greater than 1 indicates an oil effective in preventing cardiovascular disease associated with plasma lipid levels [53].

Despite the potential properties of fish oils in Cameroon, few authors have investigated them, and works have mainly focused on metabolic and infectious diseases. Only 11 species have been examined, including Cyprinus carpio, Chrysicthys nigrodigitatus, Ethmalosa fimbriata, Fontitrygon margarita, Heterotis niloticus, Hepsetus odoe, Ilisha africana, Lutjanus dentatus, Oreochromis niloticus, Pseudotolithus senegalensis, and Silurus glanis.

6.1. Metabolic Diseases

As shown in Table 5, a total of five studies have been conducted on the activity of fish oil on metabolic diseases in Cameroon, focusing on eight fish species (Cyprinus carpio, Chrysicthys nigrodigitatus, Ethmalosa fimbriata, Heterotis niloticus, Ilisha africana, Oreochromis niloticus, Pseudotolithus senegalensis, and Silurus glanis). Njinkoue et al. demonstrated that P. senegalensis oil reduced weight and dyslipidemia in obese rats [39]. Tiwo et al. found that young rats fed a standard laboratory diet supplemented with boiled flesh of S. glanis, O. niloticus, H. niloticus, and C. carpio had better protein efficiency ratios and lipid profile stabilization compared to rats fed a standard diet [37]. Manz et al. showed that I. africana oil prevents hyperlipidemia and hyperglycemia [28], while Nchoutpouen et al. found that E. fimbriata oil lowered hyperlipidemia, hyperglycemia, hepatomegaly, and adipomegaly in rats under a high-fat diet [29]. Finally, Njiké Ngamga et al. showed that C. nigrodigitatus oil improved the lipid profile of rats infected with Salmonella typhi [27]. These observations could be explained by the presence in oils of significant amounts of PUFA such as DHA and EPA. In fact, studies have demonstrated that EPA and DHA increase lipolysis and reduce and/or inhibit lipogenesis through the modulation of the activity of lipoprotein lipase. Other mechanisms could be involved in this process such as the reduction of the expression of the enzymes responsible for the esterification of glycerol-3 phosphate and/or an elevation of adipose triglyceride lipase which increases insulin sensitivity and reduces circulating lipids [1–3, 39].

6.2. Infectious Diseases

Table 6 shows that only four studies have been conducted on the use of fish oils to combat infectious diseases in Cameroon, involving four fish species (Chrysicthys nigrodigitatus, Fontitrygon margarita, Hepsetus odoe, and Lutjanus dentatus). Simplice et al. demonstrated that oils extracted from H. odoe and C. nigrodigitatus using cooking-pressing and maceration techniques had antibacterial properties against eight bacteria responsible for food poisoning diseases [35]. Similarly, L. dentatus oil has also been found to be effective against these bacteria, with cooking-pressed oil exhibiting better antibacterial activity than dried-pressed oil [30]. In addition, rats treated with C. nigrodigitatus oil obtained by cooking-pressing showed rapid and complete healing, as well as normalization of red and white blood cell levels after being infected with Salmonella typhi [27]. Simo et al. also found that oil from F. margarita liver had activity against bacteria responsible for food-borne illnesses, with exudation-obtained oil being more active than cooking-pressed oil. Furthermore, the nanoemulsion of this oil exhibited better activity than the crude oil [21]. The antimicrobial activity of these oils could be explained by the presence of significant amounts of PUFA including DHA, EPA, linolenic acid, arachidonic acid, palmitoleic acid, and oleic acid [35]. Indeed, the antibacterial activity of fatty acids is accepted nowadays, with their prime target being the cell membrane, where they disrupt the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation. Besides interfering with cellular energy production, fatty acid action may also result from the inhibition of enzyme activity, impairment of nutrient uptake, generation of peroxidation and auto-oxidation degradation products, or direct lysis of bacterial cells [18, 59]. Furthermore, ω3 and ω6 PUFA present in these oils are known to have potential antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory properties [2, 3, 18, 19].

7. Conclusion

Until March 2023, a total of 26 studies focusing on various aspects of fish oils in Cameroon had been published. These studies examined 23 fish species from three regions: the littoral, far-north, and west. The fish oils were mainly extracted from filets and by-products such as adipose tissue, liver, viscera, and gills using methods such as the Bligh and Dyer method, Soxhlet, and cooking-pressing. The oil content varied between 4.57 and 32.10% DM or oil extraction yields of 0.36 to 66.83% WW, depending on the fish species, tissues, and extraction methods. The species with the highest oil content were Lutjanus dentatus adipose tissue (66.83%), Chrysicthys nigrodigitatus fillet (32.10% DM), Oreochromis niloticus fillet (23.34%), Arius maculatus fillet (23.02% DM), Trichius lepterus fillet (20.89% DM), and Fontitrygon margarita liver (16.90% WW).

The oils studied met the recommended standards regarding markers of acidity and oxidation. Fatty acid profiles were only determined for 16 fish species and showed a total of 48 fatty acids, including 16 saturated fatty acids, 15 monounsaturated fatty acids, and 17 polyunsaturated fatty acids. Pseudotolithus typus was found to have the greatest number of fatty acids. Among fatty acids, those of particular interest for human health include palmitic, myristic, palmitoleic, oleic, linoleic, arachidonic, and linolenic acids and especially EPA and DHA. Additionally, 22 of the 23 species had a ω-3/ω-6 ratio greater than 1, indicating that these oils could be effective in preventing cardiovascular disease.

Animal studies have shown that oils from Cyprinus carpio, Chrysicthys nigrodigitatus, Ethmalosa fimbriata, Heterotis niloticus, Ilisha africana, Oreochromis niloticus, Pseudotolithus senegalensis, and Silurus glanis can reduce weight, hyperlipidemia, hyperglycemia, hepatomegaly, and adipomegaly. Furthermore, oil from Chrysicthys nigrodigitatus, Fontitrygon margarita, Hepsetus odoe, and Lutjanus dentatus has been found to be active against bacteria responsible for food poisoning diseases in vivo and in vitro.

8. Direction for Future Research

To advance the understanding and utilization of fish oils in Cameroon, future research should encompass a comprehensive characterization of the nutritional composition of oils derived from all fish species found in the country, broadening the scope beyond the current study of only 23 species. This expanded investigation should include lipid class analysis, in-depth scrutiny of fatty acid profiles, with an emphasis on omega-3 fatty acids such as EPA and DHA, and an exploration of bioactive compounds such as natural antioxidants and vitamins (e.g., tocopherols and carotenoids). This information is vital for evaluating the quality and shelf life of Cameroonian fish oils and optimizing their use as dietary supplements. Furthermore, an examination of the physicochemical properties of these oils, including boiling point, flash point, ignition point, melting point, solidification point, viscosity, plasticity, refractive index, specific gravity, solubility, and emulsion capacity, is necessary to determine their diverse applications. The research should also delve into the biological and functional properties of fish oils, encompassing their emulsification, antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer potential, with a focus on their applications in the food and pharmaceutical sectors. Moreover, an assessment of the toxicity and heavy metal content of Cameroonian fish oils, driven by increasing environmental pollution in coastal and estuarine areas, is imperative to address potential health risks. Clinical studies investigating the benefits of fish oil consumption on human health, particularly its impact on cardiovascular health, metabolic disorders, infections, cancers, inflammation, cognitive function, and relevant health outcomes, should be conducted to provide evidence-based dietary recommendations. Additionally, an evaluation of the ecological impact of fish oil production on the marine ecosystem and the sustainability of fishing practices is essential. Lastly, researchers should assess the feasibility of incorporating fish oils into various industrial sectors, such as food, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and dietary supplements, considering their stability, compatibility with different matrices, and potential as functional ingredients in product development. Concurrently, exploring the potential of fish by-products, such as heads, bones, and viscera, for fish oil production would not only add value to Cameroon’s marine resources but also contribute to waste reduction.

Data Availability

The data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.

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Copyright © 2023 Fabrice Fabien Dongho Dongmo et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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