Learning by Teaching with Humanoid Robot: A New Powerful Experimental Tool to Improve Children’s Learning Ability

Table 1

Main studies of Learning by Teaching according to the characteristics of the “pupil robot” and the “child teacher”.

Research	Robots Type	Robot’s characteristics	Children’s characteristic	Collaboration’ phenomenon
Reading
[4]	Nao	Autonomous	6 to 7 years old	Protégé effect
			(Deictic gesture, pointing)
Writing; Handwriting
[6]	Nao V4	Autonomous	6 to 8 years old	Induce agency
			7 to 8 years old	anthropomorphizing.
				Cognitively engage
[7]	Nao V4, V5	Autonomous	5 to 8 years old	Induce agency
			with SEN	anthropomorphizing.
				Cognitively engage
[26]	Nao	Autonomous	7 to 9 years old	Corrective feedback as a
				peer assessment approach
				Alone with NAO
[27]	Nao	Autonomous	5 to 6 years old	Protégé effect
				Corrective feedback
[10]	Nao	Autonomous	7 to 9 years old age
Language
[5]	Nao	Tele-operated	3 to 6 years old	Care-receiving robot
[28]	Pepper	Total Physical Response	4 to 5 years old	Care-receiving robot
Reasoning
[11, 12]	Nao V5	Tele-operated, designed to give	5 to 6 years old	Alone with NAO
		the impression to be ignorant		NAO is silly
				Teacher status
Metacognitive abilities
Feasibility of collaborative learning
Learning time				Unable to answer
[15, 16]	Ifbot	Tele-operated, Limited number	8 to 11 years	correctly
		of expressions and its arms and	old	Learning capability
		body are immobile.	with SEN
Children’s engagement Attribution of mental states
[29]	Epi	Designed to give the impression	5 to 9 years old
		of being a child while still being decidedly robotic.
Handwriting    Children’s engagement
[30]	NaoV4, V5	Tele-operated	5 years old	Protégé effect
			6,05 to 8 years old; with SEN

Children with special educational needs: visuoconstructive deficits and poor handwriting and even poorer self-confidence.
Children with special educational needs: autism spectrum disorder and with potential symptoms of developmental disability.