De Novo Human Cardiac Myocytes for Medical Research: Promises and Challenges

Table 2

Strategies for cardiac subtype myocytes generation.

Subtype cardiomyocytes	Approaches	Findings	References
Atrial myocytes	Noggin and retinoic acid	95% atrial-like cardiomyocytes	[51]
	Retinoic acid	Increased atrial-specific gene expression; 85% atrial myocytes in cell product	[52]
Ventricular myocytes	Noggin and retinoic acid pathway inhibitor	83% ventricular-like cardiomyocytes	[51]
	ROCK inhibitor, BMP4, Actvin A, and IWR-1	93–100% ventricular-like cardiomyocytes	[53]
Pacemaker myocytes	Tbx18-mediated direct programming of ventricular myocytes.	Pacemaker-like phenotype	[54, 55]
	Tbx3 overexpression in mouse ESCs	Increased yield of pacemaker-like cells	[56]
	Shox2 overexpression in mouse ESCs	More pacemaker-like cells, with enhanced biological pacemaker function	[57]