Optimization and Hydration Mechanism of Composite Cementing Material for Paste Filling in Coal Mines

Liu, Jinxiao; Li, Wenxin; Zhang, Feng; Zhang, Xinguo; Chen, Lianjun; Liu, Yongle

doi:https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/3732160

Advances in Materials Science and Engineering

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Abstract Introduction Methods Results and Discussion Conclusions Appendix Data Availability Additional Points Conflicts of Interest Acknowledgments References Copyright Related Articles

Research Article | Open Access

Volume 2019 | Article ID 3732160 | https://doi.org/10.1155/2019/3732160

Optimization and Hydration Mechanism of Composite Cementing Material for Paste Filling in Coal Mines

Jinxiao Liu,^1,2,3,4Wenxin Li ,^1,3Feng Zhang,³Xinguo Zhang,^1,3,4Lianjun Chen,^1,3and Yongle Liu³

Academic Editor: Frederic Dumur

Received23 Jun 2019

Revised23 Jul 2019

Accepted26 Oct 2019

Published07 Dec 2019

Abstract

The low early strength of materials for paste filling in mines caused by low early strength of composite cementing material has been a severe issue. In this study, the effects of sulphoaluminate cement and gypsum on strengths of composite cementing material were investigated experimentally by employing the constrained formulation uniform design. With the content of the sulphoaluminate cement below 14% and the content of the gypsum below 16%, the compressive strengths of composite cementing materials increased, especially early strength. However, the initial and final setting time does not meet the engineering requirements in this case. Optimization tests of composite additives demonstrated that H₂BO₃(0.3%) + Na₂SO₄(0.1%) and H₂BO₃(0.3%) + NaNO₂(0.1%) were ideal setting retarding and early strengthening composite additives as they can both reduce the initial and final setting time and enhance compressive strengths of composite cementing material. Investigations by XRD and SEM revealed that the hydration products of composite cementing material were dominated by AFt (ettringite) at the early stage and by C-S-H (hydrated calcium silicate) gel + CH (calcium hydroxide) gel at the middle and late stages. The hydration products of ratio-optimized composite cementing material do not restrain each other due to the generation sequence. Instead, they grew interactively and were coupled, thus facilitating the growth of the hardened body. This study can provide references for optimization of composite cementing material for paste filling in coal mines.

1. Introduction

In cementing filling, cementing agents (e.g., cement, red mud, and gypsum) were added into the filling materials, which were pumped to the underground to generate fillers with moderate strengths. The cement filler does not collapse even after partial or full relievation of its limiting conditions, thus supporting surrounding rocks and pillars. Hence, cementing filling technologies in mining can effectively extract limited resources and relieve its environment damages [1–3].

Cementing filling technologies have been widely employed since 1960s. For instance, pillars were extracted in the Mount Isa Mine in Australia using tailing cementing filling techniques, and the cement content was 12%. In 1980s and 1990s, new processes such as high-concentration filling, paste filling, waste stone cementing filling, and full tailing cementing filling have been developed and applied in various mines, including the Kidd Creek Mine, the Golden Giant Mine and the Louvicourt Mine in Canada, the Köln Mine in Germany, and the Cannington Mine in Australia [4–6].

In China, the development of cementing filling technologies can be divided into three stages. At the first stage (1960s), graded tailings were used as aggregates in cementing filling technologies. In 1968, cementing filling (in the Fankou lead-zinc mine) by graded tailings and cement was reported for the first time. At the second stage (1980s), full tailing and high-concentration cementing filling [7–12], high water rapid setting and full tailing cementing filling [13–15], and block stone cementing filling [16–21] dominated. At the third stage (1990s), paste and paste-like pumping cementing filling technology was developed [22–28].

Previous studies demonstrated that the properties of cementing material are key factors affecting its parameters such as filler strength and setting time [29–67]. As the requirement on early strength of fillers by paste filling in metal mining is not high, the cost-effective and readily accessible Portland cement can be used as the paste of cementing material. However, unlike paste filling in metal mining, the mining and filling processes of longwall workface in coal mines are strictly alternative (each for 8–10 h). Hence, paste filling in coal mining requires relatively high early strength. Owing to its long setting time and slow growth of early strength, the early performance of Portland cement must be enhanced before being used as dominant cementing fillers in paste filling.

Based on the practical requirements on performances (e.g., compressive strength and setting time) of filling paste cementing material for coal mining, Portland cement was used as the dominant material, with sulphoaluminate cement and gypsum as additives to enhance its early strength. The initial and final setting time of composite cementing material was controlled in 2.5∼4 h and 3∼4 h, respectively. First, ratios of Portland cement, sulphoaluminate cement, and gypsum in composite cementing material were optimized experimentally; then, additives were used to modify the composites. Finally, the hydration process was identified by investigating the hydration mechanism of composite cementing material to obtain that it meets the requirements of paste filling in coal mines.

2. Materials, Equipment, and Methods

2.1. Composition and Optimization Scheme of Composite Cementing Material

In this study, Portland cement was used as the main ingredient for paste cementing material, with sulphoaluminate and gypsum as supplemental ingredients to enhance the early strength of composite cementing material. The formulation of composite cementing material was determined by constrained formulation uniform design, and then the mechanical performances of the proposed composites were tested. Specifically, compressive strengths and the setting time of composite cementing materials with different ratios (D01∼D15) at different ages were measured.

2.1.1. Raw Materials

The No. 42.5 Portland cement (chemical and mineral compositions are shown in Table 1) was purchased from Shandong Sunnsy Cement Group, the No. 42.5 rapid hardening sulphoaluminate cement (mineral composition is shown in Table 2) was from Shandong Jinyu Cement Co., Ltd., and the hardened gypsum (chemical composition is shown in Table 3) from Shandong Taihe Dongxin Group was calcinated.

2.1.2. Instruments

Table 4 summarizes the testing instruments.

2.1.3. Testing of Performances

In this study, the composite cementing materials consist of Portland cement, sulphoaluminate cement, and gypsum in different ratios. With guaranteed early strength of composite cementing material, the content of sulphoaluminate cement shall be minimized to reduce the cost. With reference of the results from other researchers, the optimized contents of sulphoaluminate cement, gypsum, and Portland cement were determined to be 0∼20%, 0∼20%, and 60%∼100%, respectively. The constraints of corresponding formulation tests are as follows:

Then, the corresponding testing scheme (15 sample groups, see Table 5) was developed using the constrained formulation design in the Uniform Design Version 3.0. The uniform design table used was with D = 0.0908 (see Appendix).

The raw materials were mixed and stirred to generate 70.7 × 70.7 × 70.7 mm³ stock samples (Figure 1), which were cured at a relative humidity of 90% and a temperature of 20 ± 2°C to designated ages to obtain testing samples. According to the GB177-85 cement mortar strength testing method, the compressive strengths of samples at different ages were measured using the MTS-815 mechanical tester. In addition, the GB1346-89 cement standard consistency water consumption, setting time, and stability testing method were adopted to measure the setting time. The initial setting time is defined as the period from the start to the moment when slurry loses flow ability, during which the plasticity of cementing material paste remained constant. After initial setting, the cementing material paste was further hardened until its complete loss of plasticity, which corresponds to the final setting.

2.2. Modification Scheme of Optimized Composite Cementing Material

According to the results of mechanical performance tests, optimized formulations of composite cementing material with adequate early compressive strength were identified. The setting time was selected as the performance indicator of composite cementing material. The hydration of sulphoaluminate cement was initiated after 10 min and considerable quantity of gel was generated, resulting in too short setting time of composite cementing material. Therefore, the setting time shall be adjusted using composite additives such as setting retarding agents (e.g., H₂BO₃) and setting retarding and early strengthening agents (e.g., Li₂CO₃, Na₂SO₄, and NaNO₂).

In accordance with Section 2.1, the paste samples were 70.7 × 70.7 × 70.7 mm³ cubes and were cured under standard conditions. The setting time and compressive strengths of the samples were measured according to GB1346-89 and GB177-85, respectively.

2.3. Hydration Mechanism of Modified Composite Cementing Material

After being mixed with water, the materials are exposed to a series of physical and chemical reactions and then a hardened body with certain strengths was obtained as cementing pastes which gradually lose fluidity. This process is defined as hydration hardening of cementing material [55–64]. The mechanical performances of the hardened body are closely related to hydration products and microstructures of the samples, which vary during the hydration process. Therefore, studies of hydration hardening of cementing material can be conducted in terms of hydration products and microstructures. Herein, the D09 composite cementing material was selected and made into paste samples according to standard consistency. The samples were cured in a standard curing box for 8 h, 16 h, 1 d, 3 d, and 7 d, respectively. Subsequently, the hydration products and microstructures of prepared paste samples at designated ages were analyzed.

2.3.1. Characterizations by X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)

The X′ Pert Pro MPD diffractometer (by Malvern Panalytical, see Figure 2) was employed for quantitative and qualitative analysis of hydration products of the modified composite cementing material. The conditions are as follows: Cu target, Kα diffraction, and scanning angle of 5°∼75°. For investigations by XRD, the surface carbonized layers of samples at designated ages were removed and the samples were rinsed twice by acetone and alcohol in CO₂ free environment to achieve complete dehydration. Then, the samples were grinded by using an agate mortar, dried, and sieved by using a 4900 mesh/cm² sieve. After each cycle, the mortar was rinsed with HCl.

2.3.2. Characterization by SEM

The microstructures of hydration products were investigated using Apreo high-resolution SEM (see Figure 3). Sample blocks at different ages were dried at 70°C for 2 h, sprayed with gold in vacuum, and then characterized to investigate hydration products and micromorphologies.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Compressive Strength and Setting Time of Composite Cementing Materials

3.1.1. Compressive Strength

Table 6 summarizes the setting time and compressive strengths of Portland cement and composite cementing samples measured experimentally at different ages.

As the hydration rate and duration of composites are directly related to chemical compositions of the raw materials, the couplings of the hardened body produced by hydrations inevitably affect the compressive strength of the composite samples. According to the results, the compressive strengths of samples are dependent on the contents of sulphoaluminate cement and gypsum. Figure 4 shows the trends of compressive strengths as a function of composition of composite samples.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

As shown in Table 6 and Figure 4, both the early and late compressive strengths of composite cementing material decreased significantly once the content of sulphoaluminate cement exceeded 14% or the content of gypsum exceeded 16%. Indeed, the compressive strengths of composite cementing material may shrink after 3 d in this case. With the content of sulphoaluminate cement below 14% and content of gypsum below 16%, the compressive strengths of composites increased, especially the early strength. The descending sequence of compressive strength is D09 > D06 > D05 > D04 > D02 > D01 > D03. Specifically, compared with Portland cement, compressive strengths of sample D09 at 8 h, 16 h, 1 d, 3 d, 7 d, and 28 d increased by 75%, 42%, 36%, 34%, 24%, and 23%, respectively; meanwhile, compressive strengths of sample D06 at 8 h, 16 h, 1 d, 3 d, 7 d, and 28 d increased by 50%, 36%, 32%, 31%, 22%, and 17%, respectively.

In summary, the early strength of composite cementing samples can be significantly enhanced by ratio optimization of Portland cement, sulphoaluminate cement, and gypsum, as well as the late strength. In terms of structures, hardened bodies by early and late hydration were coupled with each other so that composites exhibited performances superior to the Portland cement single clinker. With compressive strength as the indicator, sample D09 is regarded as the optimized sample in this study.

3.1.2. Setting Time

Figures 5 and 6, respectively, show the initial and final setting time of samples measured experimentally. As observed, the trends of initial and final setting time were consistent: increased as the content of gypsum increased and decreased as the content of sulphoaluminate cement increased. This can be attributed to sulphoaluminate, which accelerates early hydration of the composite samples. As a result, the hydration rate of samples at the early stage increased and the large quantity of hydration products led to reduced setting time. On the other hand, the too high content of gypsum hinders hydration of the Portland cement, resulting in extended setting time of samples.

In summary, despite its significantly enhanced compressive strength, sample D09 exhibited severely reduced initial and final setting time. Indeed, its initial and final setting time was 42 min and 64 min, respectively. The paste filling materials used for mining shall not solidify in channels for 3-4 h. Therefore, the setting time of composite sample D09 optimized by uniform design still does not meet the requirement; thus, modifications by additives are required.

3.2. Modification Results of Optimized Composite Cementing Material

Table 7 summarizes the experimentally obtained effects of the setting retarding agent (H₂BO₃) and early strengthening agents (e.g., Li₂CO₃, Na₂SO₄, and NaNO₂) on performances of composite cementing material D09.

As observed, Li₂CO₃ and H₂BO₃ had significant effects on the setting time of composite cementing material. As the content of Li₂CO₃ increased, the initial and final setting time decreased and the early strength was enhanced, while the late strength decreased. As the content of H₂BO₃ increased, the initial and final setting time increased, while the early strength decreased. The results indicated that at the expense of reduced late strengths, additive J6 had desired effects on the setting time and early strength, while additives J7 and J8 can enhance both setting time and compressive strengths. Therefore, H₂BO₃ (0.3%) + Na₂SO₄ (0.1%) and H₂BO₃ (0.3%) + NaNO₂ (0.1%) are ideal setting retarding and early strengthening additives for composite cementing material.

In summary, appropriate additives can enhance the performances (e.g., setting time and compressive strengths) of composite cementing material. In this study, samples J7 and J8 are ideal additives for cementing material in coal mining filling.

3.3. Hydration Mechanism of Modified Composite Cementing Material

3.3.1. Hydration Process

The composite cementing material consists of 2CaO·SiO₂, 3CaO·SiO₂, 3CaO·Al₂O₃, 4CaO·Al₂O₃·Fe₂O₃ (Portland cement), 3CaO·3Al₂O₃·CaSO₄, 2CaO·SiO₂ (sulphoaluminate cement), and CaSO₄·2H₂O (gypsum). Owing to the presence of gypsum, the reaction rate of 3CaO·Al₂O₃ and 3CaO·SiO₂ was higher than that of 2CaO·SiO₂ and 4CaO·Al₂O₃·Fe₂O₃. Meanwhile, 3CaO·3Al₂O₃·CaSO₄ in sulphoaluminate is an early hydration product. Therefore, 3CaO·3Al₂O₃·CaSO₄, 3CaO·Al₂O₃, and 3CaO·SiO₂ react with each other upon addition of water: 3CaO·3Al₂O₃·CaSO₄ + 38H₂O = 3CaO·Al₂O₃·CaSO₄·32H₂O + 2(Al₂O₃·H₂O) 3CaO·Al₂O₃ + 3CaSO₄·2H₂O + 26H₂O = 3CaO·Al₂O₃·3CaSO₄·32H₂O 2(3CaO·SiO₂) + 11H₂O = 3CaO·2SiO₂·8H₂O + 3Ca(OH)₂

As the hydration proceeds, the concentration of Ca(OH)₂ increases and hydration products react with gypsum: Al₂O₃·H₂O + 3Ca(OH)₂ + 3CaSO₄·2H₂O + 22H₂O = 3CaO·Al₂O₃·3CaSO₄·32H₂O

In the middle and late hydration stages, 2CaO·SiO₂ and 4CaO·Al₂O₃·Fe₂O₃ are activated: 2(2CaO·SiO₂) + 9H₂O = 3CaO·2SiO₂·8H₂O + Ca(OH)₂ C₄AF + 2CH + 6CaSO₄·2H₂O + 50H = 2C₃(A, F)·3CaSO₄·32H₂O

In summary, main hydration products of the samples include ettringite (AFt), calcium hydroxide (CH) gel, and hydrated calcium silicate (C-S-H) gel. The generation of AFt at an early stage is the main cause of high early strength of samples.

3.3.2. Hydration Products

Figure 7 shows the XRD spectra of samples at different hydration ages. Several conclusions can be drawn:(1)The main hydration products include AFt, CH gel, and C-S-H gel, while their relative contents vary with the hydration age, according to their diffraction peak intensities(2)After 8 h hydration, a considerable quantity of AFt was generated, resulting in high early strength of samples(3)CaCO₃ was observed in hydration products. This can be attributed to the exposure of AFt to CO₂(4)The diffraction peaks of clinker minerals (e.g., SiO₂ and 3CaO·3Al₂O₃·CaSO₄) in samples decreased, indicating that the contents of clinker minerals decreased as the hydration age increased(5)After 8 h of hydration, no diffraction peak corresponding to CaSO₄ was observed, demonstrating complete hydration of CaSO₄, whose product is AFt

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

3.3.3. Microstructures

Figure 8 shows the microstructures of samples at different hydration ages. Several conclusions can be drawn:(1)After 8 h of hydration, fine, scattered, needle-shaped AFt was observed. The AFt grew interactively and radially, with high density.(2)After 16 h, the density of AFt increased, and its growth followed the intersecting pattern.(3)After 1 d of hydration, sizes of AFt increased drastically and were distributed in clusters, while C-S-H gel flakes appeared.(4)After 3 d, the density of C-S-H gel increased and the flakes were turned into prisms, demonstrating that the contents of C-S-H gel and CH gel increased and the hydration of Portland cement was accelerated.(5)After 7 d, the matrix AFt followed a cloud distribution while the density of needle-shaped AFt decreased. In some areas, large C-S-H gel prisms were observed.(6)According to the microstructures of hydration products, the early and late strength of sample was dominated by AFt and C-S-H gel, respectively, as AFt grew rapidly while C-S-H gel grew slowly. The hydration products grew interactively and were coupled, thus facilitating the growth of the hardened bodies of cementing material, instead of restraining each other due to the generation sequence.

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

4. Conclusions

Formulation tests of composite cementing materials were conducted based on constrained formulation design. The effects of compositions (e.g., Portland cement, sulphoaluminate cement, and gypsum) of composite cementing materials on their performances were investigated using mechanical performance tests of samples, and the optimized samples were tested and modified. The following conclusions can be drawn:(1)The setting time of samples was negatively related to the content of sulphoaluminate cement and positively related to the content of gypsum, and the trends of initial and final setting time were consistent.(2)Both the early and late compressive strengths of composite cementing materials decreased significantly if the content of sulphoaluminate cement exceeded 14% or the content of gypsum exceeded 16%. Indeed, the compressive strengths of composite cementing material may shrink after 3 d in this case. With the content of sulphoaluminate cement below 14% and the content of gypsum below 16%, the compressive strengths of composites increased. The composition corresponding to optimized compressive strength was Portland cement (79.1%) + sulphoaluminate cement (9.8%) + hardened gypsum (11.1%).(3)Additives H₂BO₃(0.3%) + Na₂SO₄(0.1%) and H₂BO₃(0.3%) + NaNO₂(0.1%) are regarded as setting retarding and early strengthening composite additives because they can enhance both the setting time and the strength of composite cementing material.(4)Investigations by XRD and SEM revealed that the hydration products were dominated by AFt at the early stage and C-S-H gel and CH gel at the middle and late stages. Meanwhile, hydration products of composite cementing material with optimized ratios grew interactively and were coupled, thus facilitating the growth of the hardened body of cementing material, instead of restraining each other due to the generation sequence.

In this study, the optimized ratios of Portland cement, sulphoaluminate cement, and gypsum in composite cementing material were determined, the hydration mechanism of composite cementing material was identified, and the composite cementing material was modified using appropriate additives to meet the requirements by paste filling in coal mines.

Appendix

Over the past two decades, uniform design has been widely applied, especially in formulation design for materials. Known as mixing tests, formulation tests aim to investigate the effects of material ratio on performance indicators. The formulation design can be categorized as unconstrained and constrained ones according to component constraints in the formulation.

In composite cementing material, the contents of sulphoaluminate cement and gypsum were relatively low as they are employed to modify the properties of Portland cement. Hence, samples in this study shall be tested by constrained formulation tests with s kinds of raw materials M₁, M₂, … , M_s and with percentage contents of X₁, X₂, … , X_s, respectively; optimized formulation was researched under constraints:(1)Define the constraints of X₁, X₂, … , X_s in the formulation as(2)With given s and n, appropriate uniform design table was selected accordingly and the set of elements in or was labelled as .(3)The selected uniform design table or was linearly transformed to a unit cube vector :(4)Define as a group of uniformly distributed points in and calculate using equation (A.3) and obtain equation (A.4) based on constraints of : Solve that to obtain and , which are minimum and maximum of , respectively. In this way, simplex T_s was obtained and the area determined by I_s is defined as R: Set a uniform design in R and define the area confined by as area D. Then, points in D are the uniform design scheme needed for this study.(5)Points in are linearly transformed to R to generate :(6)Points in that follow equations (A.3) and (A.4) are included in area D.(7)Substitute points in area D into equation (A.3) to obtain .

Data Availability

All data used to support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon request.

Additional Points

Highlights. (1) Providing references for further enhancing the performances of composite cementing material for paste filling in coal mines. (2) Effects of the contents of sulphoaluminate cement and gypsum on composite cementing material’ setting time and compressive strength are investigated. (3) Two kinds of optimized additives, which are (H₂BO₃ (0.3%) + Na₂SO₄ (0.1%) and H₂BO₃ (0.3%) + NaNO₂ (0.1%)), have been identified to enhance setting time and strength of composite cementing material for paste filling in coal mines.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the Key Laboratory of Deep Coal Mine Excavation Response and Disaster Prevention and Control, Anhui Province (Anhui University of Science and Technology), Huainan, China, 232001, (KLDCMERDPC16101 and 01CK05002), Jinxiao Liu ([email protected]) and the Key Development Plan Financial Aid Project of Shandong, China, (2018GSF116002), Xinguo Zhang ([email protected]), and the National Science Fund Financial Aid Project, (51574159), Xinguo Zhang ([email protected]).

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Copyright © 2019 Jinxiao Liu et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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